With the widespread of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), measures are being taken to control the spreading while not hampering the success of academia. Educators and their students have encountered the e-learning process globally ( Bao, 2020). The vast gain in the influence of technology since the 1990s has been impacting the education system, amongst which e-learning is being adopted globally ( Barrot, Llenares, & del Rosario, 2021). Accordingly, the ‘digitalization’ process in education has been launched attached with a series of virtual management and digital competencies ( Purnama, Ulfah, Machali, Wibowo, & Narmaditya, 2021). Keeping pace with that, the effectiveness of e-learning is dependent on the optimism towards it and having fluency in technologies ( Çevik & Bakioğlu, 2021). Computer competency, especially internet usability, has powered a prodigious growth in e-learning, where institutions have integrated virtual classrooms into their curriculum to continue education ( Almossa, 2021; Mgutshini, 2013). This adoption has provided opportunities for students to enhance their competencies ( Churiyah, Sholikhan, Filianti, & Sakdiyyah, 2020; Siron, Wibowo, & Narmaditya, 2020) and attributed it to a requirement of developing digital literacy skills ( Phuapan, Viriyavejakul, & Pimdee, 2016; Purnama et al., 2021).

Recently, various web-based free accessed platforms have been used to continue education ( Ali, Ramay, & Shahzad, 2011; Keskin & Yurdugül, 2020; Salta, Paschalidou, Tsetseri, & Koulougliotis, 2021). This virtual learning-enabled communication is convenient, especially for introverts ( Salta et al., 2021; Walker, Rossi, Anastasi, Gray-Ganter, & Tennent, 2016). Nevertheless, obstacles remain in technological dilemmas, poor internet providers and limited adaptability, creating hurdles for the students ( Al-Amin et al., 2021; Katz, Jordan, & Ognyanova, 2021; Shaukat, Niazi, Qazi, & Basit, 2021). Studies have shown that 70% of online students have faced technological errors or computer issues in this web-based pedagogical system ( Al-Amin et al., 2021; Yan et al., 2021). Hence, users’ self-ability in e-learning was noted to affect the learning experience ( Prifti, 2020; Sarwar et al., 2020). Alqurashi (2016) investigated computer and internet usability and showed a satisfactory experience was positively and significantly associated with e-learning exposure in several studies ( Alqurashi, 2016; Daniels, Goegan, & Parker, 2021; Liu & Larose, 2008; Saif Almuraqab, 2020).

Adequate technological support was needed for the students to explore lesson materials. Several research assessed that students were getting anxious while acquiring lessons due to technological issues ( Ali et al., 2011; Alzahrani & Seth, 2021; Çevik & Bakioğlu, 2021; Maheshwari, 2021). Whereas, with adequate technological support, students retrieved classes from anywhere at any time ( Al-Azzam, Elsalem, & Gombedza, 2020; Kumar, Kumar, & Ting, 2021). The e-learning experience in this context varied on factors like gender, residence, region and minority groups; ( Abuhassna et al., 2020; Alqurashi, 2019; Alyoussef, 2021; Shahzad, Hassan, Aremu, Hussain, & Lodhi, 2021). Hence, increasing the dropout rates ( Cromley & Kunze, 2021; Yang, Peng, Wong, & Chong, 2021).

Besides, the transition from traditional to e-learning has created numerous issues for educators and university students of various disciplines ( Giray, 2021; Hsu, Wang, & Levesque-Bristol, 2019). As the curriculum was not designed for online learning ( Dong et al., 2020; Misirli & Ergulec, 2021), it was reported as complicated to bring a change into it. Additionally, unequipped digital resources accelerated the complication for the learners in remote areas ( Rahiem, 2021). Over time, unequal access and distribution of adequate resources have been established due to differences in backgrounds ( Yu, Zhang, & Zou, 2021). Again, the various home environments of the students do not allow an equal environment for all, which is opposed by the traditional education environment ( Kumar et al., 2021). Therefore, the call for equity is a matter of concern, and the issues of technological inequalities and digital disparities are foremost to be disrupted ( Klümper et al., 2016). The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-International Institute for Educational Planning has already emphasized that maintaining equity is a great challenge with the transition to learning remotely ( Istenič, 2021).

When researched further, perceived stress of e-learning was also found as one of the outcomes of the e-learning curriculum ( Alqurashi, 2016). With the deadly COVID-19 condition, young students are victims of accelerated stress, anxiety, and depression development, hindering their growth in education ( Shaukat et al., 2021; Vayre & Vonthron, 2019). Studies have shown that e-learning during this pandemic has created psychological and intellectual gaps among students because of resource constraints ( Al-Balas et al., 2020; Yang, Quadir, Chen, & Miao, 2016; Yang et al., 2021). Students worldwide were already worried about the impact of the virus ( Wang & Zhao, 2020; Wang et al., 2020), and the pedagogical changes found increased stress level among females particularly ( Almossa, 2021).

According to the United Nations, the disruption due to COVID-19 in the education sector impacted more than 72% of the students in the world ( Kumar et al., 2021; Sarwar et al., 2020). To overcome the disruption, internet, audio and video lectures, television and radio broadcasts, and available CDs have been used as lessons for the students in Pakistan. Kapasia et al. (2020) examined in India that students who belonged to remote regions and underprivileged residences were confronted with numerous issues related to mental health, network connectivity, and unsupportive home conditions ( Kapasia et al., 2020). Meanwhile, Indonesian students also complained about technological interference, costly internet, lack of digital skills, and difficulties accessing learning materials ( Rahiem, 2020).

Meanwhile, in Bangladesh, universities started conducting online education in accordance with the declaration of the Ministry of Education. However, studies found disinterest among the students due to unpreparedness and lack of proper technological services ( Emon, Alif, & Islam, 2020). In contrast, a study found that 70% of the attendees of online classes belonged to private universities ( Ramij & Sultana, 2020) ( Islam et al., 2020). The Bangladeshi university students are willing to learn online, although the affordability of technological tools' has hindered their willingness to continue ( Al-Amin et al., 2021). Though online classes are not new for neighboring countries, keeping up with online classes extensively in developing countries like Bangladesh is not free of problems ( Shaukat et al., 2021). However, sufficient studies have not been conducted nationwide scrutinizing these issues so far.

Therefore, this study aimed to observe the prevalence of technological availability and diversity of using technology to derive usability among university students. In addition, the study investigated students’ technological availability and usability association to perceived stress due to e-learning. This study may help policymakers, aiding them in coming up with unique solutions to improve the quality and equity of education.

This study investigated the prevalence of technology availability and usability among university students. All the factors defining e-learning readiness in the context of technological availability and usability are significantly associated with perceived e-learning stress. To the best of the authors' knowledge, no other studies in developing countries like Bangladesh accessed the prevalence of students' technological availability and uasability.

In this study, sub-optimum hardware and software facilities were found to be significantly associated with the students' perceived stress score. The prevalence of these facilities was sub-optimum, especially among females, rural students, and students outside Dhaka. In an Indonesian study, Churiyah et al. (2020), observed that the lack of electronic devices and technological infrastructure in institutions had hampered the students' educational growth. Conversely, Alghamdi et al. (2020), identified that American students had performed better in online learning structure than the traditional settings with the help of necessary technological support, e.g., video and audio lectures, accessible communication etc. From our country’s perspective, the availability of hardware and software devices is comparatively prominent in Dhaka. Students residing in rural settings tend to be less facilitated regarding technical support because of financial and lack of digitalization contexts. Bangladesh is being digitalized adequately recently, which is also available within a homogenous stratum, e.g., citizens of Dhaka. As availability concerns were being addressed, the priority put the males in front of the queue, cooperating with the findings of our study. With the concerning availability of device facilities, stress is a common outcome for university students whose education is still entirely dependent on e-learning.

It was also found that on dissatisfactory level, sub-optimal internet speed and internet stability were two other factors found associated with females, rurality, and residency outside Dhaka when stratified. It, too, had a significant effect on the students’ stress levels. Barrot et al. (2021), stated that among the Philippine's students, the technological barrier at home, poor internet connectivity, and stability hindered their education and caused a significant challenge. In Bangladesh, internet speed and stability rely on the connection providers, and due to the sudden pandemic situation and lockdown at short notice, the internet usage and human dependency on it raised, which might have increased the pressure for the internet connection providers. Ali et al. (2011), in Pakistan, and Almossa et al. (2021) in Saudi Arabia showed students’ dissatisfaction due to issues with the internet. Moreover, it might be a profound reason for students’ e-learning stress.

Alongside this, sub-optimal access to computers and internet connectivity whenever needed was also prevalent when it came to students' needs. These factors affected the stress of students’ e-learning exposure. Bangladeshi academia was always entirely focused on the in-person educational structure where students were never habituated with technological dependency. With the outbreak of COVID-19, most students were compelled to shift online learning structure to avoid their study gap. This sudden shift could not prepare the students equally from gender, rurality, and non-centralized perspectives. Therefore, females being less exposed to the internet and computer systems, specifically when it comes to rural areas, are often disadvantaged. The students in the periphery do not get computer and internet connections available whenever needed. This could be a plausible explanation for being significantly associated with stress. Several studies were found in agreement with our findings ( Barrot et al., 2021; Keskin & Yurdugül, 2020; Purnama et al., 2021). On the other hand, Purnama et al. (2021), assessed the risk of internet misusing and cyberbullying increasing along with the free access of computers and the internet.

Like availability, the usability of technology was also observed to be significantly sub-optimum among females, rural and students outside Dhaka. It was found to affect the stress score of students significantly. Numerous studies found students and teachers were struggling when it came to self-efficacy of internet use. Students have seen issues due to their lack of knowledge on internet usage in an academic context and teachers' struggling due to lack of internet exposure ( Bao, 2020; Churiyah et al., 2020; Siron et al., 2020). From a general perspective, people in Bangladesh are used to internet usage, but mainly for social media purposes. When stratified by gender, Bangladeshi females were found less technological usability, which can explain that they are primarily occupied doing chores. A similar scenario was found outside of Dhaka, where students may optimize their time with outdoor activities. In rural settings, students maintain routine lifestyle that is more scheduled with in-person interactions. These might be reasons beneath the observed prevalence, hence, affecting students’ stress levels.

Female, rural, and outside Dhaka were seen to have sub-optimum prevalence when communicating via e-mail. This factor not only was prevalent but also accelerated the stress among the students. E-mail communication is not a common way of interacting for this generation in Bangladesh. Social networking systems have changed their communication habits and made them more informal. Bangladeshi students are more comfortable making a phone call or sending a text in or messaging on Facebook, WhatsApp etc. However, regarding the rural perspective, students and teachers prefer to respond via mobile call or direct communications rather than e-mail. Moreover, Bangladeshi females and peripheric students are less technologically adept due to the behavioral and cultural norms practiced for a long time. Studies supporting our findings showed the importance of online communication in this digital era ( Alghamdi et al., 2020; Walker et al., 2016).

A significant difference in sub-optimal means was found with office software usability compared to the optimal usability. Many Turkish, Indonesian, and Jordanian studies explored that expertise and skills in office software usage could benefit students of all levels ( Çevik & Bakioğlu, 2021; Siron et al., 2020). From an overall perspective, students in our country are less used to the usability of technology such as Microsoft office. The prominent structure of regular face-to-face classes never required them to be. Thus, the complete curriculum shift depending on software usage could be the reason for such findings, causing extreme stress levels in the students.

In this study, instant messaging, file hosting services, learning management systems, and online forum usability were some of the signs found as associated factors. These affected the students’ stress levels with a higher difference of means compared to optimality. The reason could be the never-needed functionality for rural students in online forms of communication. As for the female and non-centralized students, women here are less keen to explore the numerous technological mediums and devices except for the most common platforms. Studies from various continents found similar outcomes and concluded with its importance in developing a solid e-learning system ( Purnama et al., 2021). Here in Bangladesh, another general reason could be the expense regarding the usage, looking at most university students' cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Due to lockdown, the online snowball sampling technique was applied that is one of the limitations of our study, compromising the randomization of students. Recall bias of the respondent could not be excluded due to the self-reported online questionnaire approach. A tool to collect qualitative and quantitative data could bring up some narratives of the students’ experiences for a deeper understanding.

This study enrolled students with a moderate sample size to be addressed as a representative study keeping in mind the lockdown situation of university students. This study also considered the various factors associated with the technological barriers that the e-learning community is facing. It may help policymakers developing the technological ground for academia to avoid educational hindrances due to any emerging situation, similar to the COVID-19 pandemic. For further research recommendation, a more rigorous analytical study on the subject matter could be informative.

This study assessed the technological stands of the university students' usability and technical support availability. The study found that lack of technological stands affects the stress level of the students enrolled in an online curriculum. However, the findings strongly suggest the relevant authorities take steps to revitalize the curriculum of e-learning to be adaptive to technology. Such awareness steps would facilitate the students' technical knowledge development, which is essential for building digital Bangladesh and accelerating digital literacy. Hence, preparing the academicians always to be more ready to tackle hurdles such as pandemics and transform the curriculum into e-learning from traditional rapidly whenever needed.

Assessing the prevalence of sub-optimum and optimum technological availability and usability among university students and their association with perceived e-learning stress may highlight the education system's infrastructure. Insights from identifying the effect of students’ technological condition and supporting initiatives to reduce their stress level can be used to derive the corrective action(s) that needs to be assessed for building digital Bangladesh.

Informed electronic consent was obtained for all the participants involved in the study.