There are different breeds of IC reared by rural farmers in SSA. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO) highlighted various IC breeds that rural communities in Zambia reared. These breeds include the common Zambi, Naked neck, Dwarfs or short-legged, Frizzled feathered, Feathery legged, and Short-tailed, with live bodyweights (BW) range of 1.3-2.0 kg at over 180 days of age ( MACO 2003; PAZ 2021). Studies in Nigeria and Botswana suggest significant differences in live BW between female (0.7-2.1 kg) and male (1.2-3.2 kg) IC ( Guèye 2000). In Benin, some common IC breeds include Koklogbo, Komaloe, Adjagble, Win, and Dingbannon, which are reared by rural communities ( Rodríguez et al. 2011). Their fieldwork compared production parameters between IC and exotic breeds and assessed the impact of the NCD vaccination program on the profitability of the two ventures. They reported that IC laid ten eggs per cycle and achieved 2.4 cycles per year, 70% hatchability, 150 days of the growth period at 1.1 kg live BW and 120 days for brooding and maintenance. In contrast, exotic chickens had slightly higher production indicators at 12 eggs per cycle, three cycles per year, 80% hatching rate and a somewhat shorter period of brooding and maintenance at 89 days ( Rodríguez et al. 2011). They concluded that IC were more profitable for poor resource farmers compared to exotic. Compared to broilers at 42 days, the growth period for IC is much longer. Recently, Zambia’s poultry sector saw the introduction of new chicken breeds. Some improved free-range chicken breeds include the Boschvelds, Kruoillers, Black Australorps and Brahma ( PAZ 2021). Although the improved free-range breeds are perceived to mature early and very productive under a free-range set-up, the high prices for day old chicks and susceptibility to diseases render them inaccessible to SSF ( PAZ 2021). In general, the negligible costs of producing the common IC encourages farmers’ continued commitment in the IC sector. A high benefit-cost ratio in IC is standard as any selling price translates to profit ( Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016).

The contribution of IC to food needs for rural households is much more significant than other types of indigenous livestock. Rural families in SSA have met the much-needed animal-based protein by consuming chicken meat and eggs. For example, Guèye (1998, 2000) demonstrated how a farmer who started with one pullet in Tanzania gained nearly 170 chickens, 1,100 eggs and 47 kg of chicken meat in five years. There was a significant change in the farmers’ food and nutritional security and livelihood. Based on production trends between 2009 and 2017, the IC sector has significantly contributed to the poultry meat and egg supply in most countries in SSA ( FAOstat 2022; Vernooij et al. 2018). In 2016, IC comprised 82.4% of Kenya’s 40.4 million chickens (total), and the sector produced over 1,530 million eggs annually. In contrast, in Uganda, 26.6 million (66.5%) were IC, the poultry sector produced 856 million eggs, and Tanzania had 37 million IC (55.2%), producing over 1,780 million eggs annually ( Vernooij et al. 2018). Growth trends for IC were also reported between 2010 and 2020 in Benin at 37.6% from 16.5 million, Nigeria dropped by 13.7% from 192 million IC, and Zambia expanded by 17.4% from 35 million. In contrast, the Gambia showed significant growth of 64.7% from 0.85 million native chickens ( FAOstat 2022).

The household consumption levels for IC and related products depend on the productivity and performance of farmers’ chickens. Communities that experience higher chicken mortalities exhibit low consumption levels for IC meat and eggs, and eggs are solely for hatching and replacement stock, and in contrast, chickens are typically sold to raise household incomes ( de Bruyn et al. 2018). Global consumption trends for poultry products show that from 2004 to 2012, a 9% increment in chicken meat to 63 million MT and a 20% rise in egg consumption to 55.5 million MT was reported ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). The number of eggs consumed annually per person varies from country to country. From 2009 to 2017, Kenya, Tanzania and Nigeria experienced reductions at (0.6-0.5), 1.6-1.5) and (1.6-0.9) eggs/person/year, respectively. The egg consumption rates in SSA were significantly low at (2.1) eggs/person/year compared to over 13 eggs, the global average ( Vernooij et al. 2018).

The consumption of IC meat and eggs is highly dependent on the socioeconomic status of the community and, in future, the growth in human populations ( Guèye 1998, 2000; Klingholz 2020; Scherf and Pilling 2015). For example, in Tanzania, the SSF consumed less than half of what they produced and sold the rest to rural areas, whereas in Zambia, the SSF consumed more than half of IC and only sold 20% to urban areas ( Queenan et al. 2016). Further, communities that are assisted with sustainable interventions to improve the productivity of IC also exhibit changes in consumption patterns for chicken meat and eggs ( Dumas et al. 2017).

Indigenous chicken enterprises under the free range system are considered low-input because of the low capital requirements, creating an easy way out of poverty for most resource poor communities in SSA ( Guèye 1998, 2000; Dolberg 2007). Indigenous chickens significantly contribute to household incomes and livelihood assets for rural communities in the region. Farmers acquire finances to meet their daily needs and possible future investments ( Dumas et al. 2017; Guèye 2000). For example, when family A raises US$180 from selling 30 chickens, they allocate US$72 for daily household needs, US$54 for buying clothes, US$36 for business and US$18 for purchasing replacement stock ( Guèye 2000). Some farmers invest their incomes and purchase food sources in times of hunger ( Dumas et al. 2017). The meticulous allocation of incomes from IC highlights how valuable the chickens are for rural livelihoods. Farmers could also use IC as a medium of exchange. For example, in the Gambia, SSF exchanged five full-grown hens with an adult sheep and 25 hens with one adult cow ( Guèye 1998, 2000). This trend also illustrated how owning IC was as good as owning other livelihood assets among rural households.

Indigenous chickens are also considered socioeconomic and gender equalisers, favouring women and children in most parts of SSA ( Kitalyi 1998; Guèye 2000; Moreki et al. 2010; Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016). Over 70% of IC in SSA are owned and managed by women and children, creating an enabling environment for them to access various livelihood assets ( Guèye 2000; Dolberg 2007). However, some researchers are sceptical and cautious about the contribution of IC to gender equality in rural communities. For example, in certain societies in Tanzania, women and children could only manage the chickens, but the powers to decide on the marketing and use were still in men’s hands ( Queenan et al. 2016). Similar findings in Mozambique highlighted that prolonged wars significantly reduced the number of cattle and goats, resulting in increased interest and control of IC by men ( Guèye 1998, 2000).

Some social-cultural and religious functions of IC among rural communities are usually a combination of incomes, consumption, gifts, medicinal and other uses ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). In SSA, rural communities sacrifice IC during traditional ceremonies and rituals, share cocks as gifts to their guests at cultural events such as weddings, and use the cocks for traditional medicines, including sexual stimulation for men and general hygiene through scavenging ( Guèye 2000). White feathered chickens are vital for traditional medicines and sacrifices in Somalia, Cameroon and Zambia ( Guèye 2000). Attaching value to the colour or appearance of indigenous livestock is also a pricing technique under traditional markets in parts of SSA ( Mueller et al. 2015). Indigenous chickens are a more significant part of the culture, such that as people migrate to urban areas, they introduce their foods and IC breeds to their new settlements ( Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Indigenous chickens are considered a significant component in community-based breeding programs by sharing and incubating fertilised eggs within the community ( Dumas et al. 2017; Guèye 2000). Farmers also use IC as security, ornamental and for hobbies. For example, nearly 71% of Ghana’s IC were for breeding purposes ( Guèye 2000). Farmers strategically selected desired males and females for continued production ( Guèye 2000; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Similarly, eggs were incubated and hatched in Ethiopia for continued chicken production in rural communities. Combined income and consumption use were reported in Zimbabwe, whereas in Nigeria, farmers used IC for Barter ( Guèye 2000).

The continued erosion of IC-AnGR and the low socioeconomic gains by rural farmers producing IC are potential threats to rural livelihoods in SSA. These chickens are highly adapted to conditions, able to use scavenged feeds efficiently, incubate and brood naturally making them more sustainable for small-scale scavenging systems in SSA (Riise et al. 2004; Rodríguez et al. 2011). The 2015 biodiversity status report by FAO revealed that over 3.5% of chicken breeds were extinct, 33% were at high risk, and about 67% were in the unknown status category ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). In SSA, 80% of SSF keep IC, significantly contributing to the IC sector, making them the primary custodians of IC-AnGR in the region. If there are no measures to stop or reduce the loss of IC-AnGR, the rural communities in low-income countries are likely to suffer.

The decision by SSF in many parts of SSA to reconsider the rearing of IC is a viable socioeconomic strategy. However, the growth of the IC sector is hindered significantly by poultry diseases ( Guèye 1998, 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). Most researchers argue that the low-input and scavenging production systems are less successful than the intensive system for broilers or layers due to uncontrolled poultry diseases ( Rischkowsky and Pilling 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Most producers of IC in rural areas depend on natural remedies for controlling poultry diseases ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). Guèye (2000) suggested that over 79% of rural farmers use traditional herbs and plants to treat poultry diseases and that 50% of mortalities happen in the IC sector within the first four weeks of chicken raising. In other parts of SSA, Queenan et al. (2016) reported that suspected Newcastle disease (NCD) and fowlpox cause 40% to 100% of mortalities in IC towards the end of the dry season in the region. In Zambia, NCD, fowl pox, typhoid, infectious coryza, Gumboro, worm infestation, and external parasites have significantly contributed to the poor performance and high mortalities experienced in the IC sector ( Phiri et al. 2007; Simainga et al. 2011; Mubamba et al. 2018).

In 2012, over 27% of SSF in Zambia relied on traditional medication, and less than 15% used veterinary drugs, resulting in 60% of the IC dying ( Lubungu and Mofya 2012). The FAO rates poultry diseases and poor disease management at 28%, introducing exotic animal breeds at 22%, uncontrolled cross-breeding at 63% and climate change at 16% as responsible for the loss of chicken breeds globally ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). Despite the high disease prevalence observed in IC, there are some beneficial adaptability and genetic gains through natural selection.

Indigenous chickens have evolved in their current and uncontrolled environments evident through developing disease resistance and high adaptation to low-quality diets ( Mapiye et al. 2008; Gizaw et al. 2010; Queenan et al. 2016). Among the 75 avian breeds that show unspecified resistance to NCD, a devastating infectious disease endemic to certain areas, 56 were chicken breeds ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). In Nigeria, Naked neck and Yoruba chickens exhibited resistance to viral infection and eliminated the disease if it occurred ( Adeyemo et al. 2012; Bobbo et al. 2013). Further, novel genes and the pathways signalling the resistance of avian influenza in poultry were analysed by ( Wang et al. 2014). These traits, which are superior in IC to commercial breeds, may be essential in future chicken breeding programs ( Mapiye et al. 2008). Gizaw et al. (2010) suggest that adaptive traits are equal to or more important than production traits in indigenous livestock production systems.

Nutritional problems are mainly due to high feed costs and poor chicken feeding regimes among SSF. The cost of feeds and other live inputs in the Zambian poultry industry generally increased in the past five years. The high costs of poultry feed in SSA are attributed to ever-rising prices for soya beans and maize ( Bagopi et al., 2014; Vernooij et al., 2018). The Poultry Association of Zambia (PAZ), an affiliate of the Zambia farmers Union, has been publishing weekly reports covering prices for poultry inputs. The association reported price changes for feed, feed ingredients and live inputs for the first quarters between 2016 and 2021; the solvent-extracted soybean meal increased by 27.7% from US$23.50 per 50 kg, and 45.3% increase for broiler starter from US$20.10 per 50 kg. Further, prices for broiler grower increased by 44% from US$19.30 per 50 kg, and finisher increased by 45.9% from US$18.50 per 50 kg, whereas a 49% increase in layer mash from U$14.70 per 50 kg ( PAZ 2021). Other price increments included day-old chicks for improved free-range chickens, layers and broilers at 87.5%, 83.3% and 125% from US$0.80, US$0.60 and US$0.40 per bird, respectively. Market prices for pullets, broilers, spent layers, and IC increased by 64.8%, 57%, 38.5% and 61.5% from US$8.90, US$3.00, US$2.60 and US$3.90 per bird, respectively ( PAZ 2021). The high prices for feed and other live inputs have hindered SSF from participating entirely in the commercial poultry sector in SSA ( Vernooij et al. 2018). The proportinal increment in feeds costs with increased flock sizes observed in exotic or commercial chickens is the major factor contributing to reduced profits compared to IC sector ( Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Limited supplementary feeding and a lower plane of nutrition under the scavenging system lead to mortalities and reduced consistency in chicken (eggs) size and quality ( Queenan et al. 2016). The majority of the IC are left to roam and scavenge for feed sources, such as insects, termites, vegetables, seeds, grains and earthworms, and in some instances, farmers supplement the chickens with kitchen waste, maize bran, leafy vegetables and other cheap feed sources ( Mwalusanya et al. 2002; Goromela et al. 2006; Mapiye et al. 2008).

There are also fluctuations in the availability of scavenged feed resources between one harvest and the following year’ in rain-fed farming systems in SSA ( de Bruyn et al. 2018). In Zambia, the scavenging chickens have access to high-protein insects and earthworms in the rainy season (December to April) and high-energy feed sources during the harvest time from May to August. However, in the hot and dry season, a severe shortage of nutritious feeds leads to poor health, malnutrition and high mortalities ( Queenan et al. 2016). The dry season requires deliberate feed supplementation to mitigate adverse effects on IC ( de Bruyn et al. 2018). In some parts of SSA, breeding black soldiers fly larvae and maggots as protein sources are being experimented with and may improve nutrition in the IC sector, especially in periods of scarcity ( Kenis et al. 2014).

The existing policies governing the poultry sector are generally inadequate in SSA. Most policies and trade restrictions are in favour of commercial poultry producers. In Namibia, poultry producers legally brine broiler meat at 20%; in Botswana, commercial producers are allowed to supply 75% of poultry meat demand, whereas brined poultry meat is not allowed ( Bagopi et al. 2014).

Infrastructure development is more leaned toward larger farms ( Dolberg 2007). Most governments in SSA allocate more funds to infrastructure development, favouring larger livestock species predominantly run by commercial entities. Furthermore, minimal attention goes to the IC sector, despite SSF being part of the primary data source when designing policies on funding and infrastructure ( Dolberg 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). In Zambia, the livestock infrastructure support project funded by African Development Bank focused on the construction of dairy and beef infrastructure. The Second National Agriculture Policy of 2016 to 2020 did not provide a good roadmap on value addition and market participation for SSF involved in the IC sector ( MFL 2017). The inadequate policies exacerbate the problems experienced in the IC sector, and rural farmers feel neglected by political leaders and inadequately represented by scientists ( Bagopi et al. 2014; Dolberg 2007).

Low-income countries have witnessed economic growth, particularly in the private sector. The observed changes are motivated by inadequate regulations and policies that negatively affect ecosystems, AnGR and the markets ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). Poultry products worth millions of dollars are imported overseas to SSA, negatively impacting local poultry sectors. In 2018, South Africa imported frozen poultry products of mixed parts valued at over US$65 million from different sources in Brazil ( PAZ 2021). These posed a public health threat because they lacked traceability and affected the local poultry sector. In Ghana, over US$60 million of poultry products were imported into the country, flooding the local market in 2018 ( PAZ 2021). These importations prompted the Ghanaian poultry association to engage the government in introducing quotas on poultry imports to protect local poultry farmers. In Namibia, the government sanctioned the importation of poultry products to mitigate the adverse impact on the local poultry industry. In Zambia, the Poultry Association of Zambia continued to engage the government to promote policies protecting and enhancing farmers in the commercial and IC sectors ( PAZ 2021). Some policy researchers recommend factoring in some livestock production policies and legislation on consumption to existing environmental management policies that could enrich strategies, enhance community benefits and reduce food wastage ( Steinfeld and Gerber 2010).

In SSA, farmers in the IC sector face barriers preventing them from accessing organised markets. These obstacles are associated with market standards and requirements, such as selling frozen whole or portions of chickens, packaging, labelling, and selling from standard outlets ( Bagopi et al. 2014). Producers in the IC sector cannot compete with larger commercial entities because they neither own the required facilities, brands or organised sales outlets ( Simainga et al. 2011; Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). With many obstacles to the established markets, SSF can only sell their chickens or eggs directly to these markets through groups and intermediaries who manage most market channels ( Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). This way is also full of obstacles.

In Zambia, SSF sell chickens through informal places, such as the roadside, village markets, the backyards, and direct to consumers ( Queenan et al. 2016; Mubamba et al. 2018; PAZ 2021). In many parts of the country, informal markets have recently transformed into essential selling points, making it possible for farmers to organise and meet consumers’ demands on quality and quantity. For example, “Tuesday and Saturday markets” have become popular in some parts of the country ( PAZ 2021). In the Northern part of Zambia, this traditional market is also called Munada, where traders agree on the date and place for the market day.

Low access to reliable markets generally affects IC sales, prices and consumption dynamics among rural communities. For example, in Tanzania, the SSF sold twice more village chickens and eggs to rural areas than they consumed and sold at US$3.72 per live chicken. In contrast, producers of IC in Zambia consumed more than half of their chickens and only sold 20% to urban areas at an average price of US$3.37 per bird ( Queenan et al. 2016). The variation in selling points and consumption levels shows how undefined and informal the markets for IC are in SSA.

Another constraint is the lack of reliable poultry housing facilities for IC under scavenging systems. Some farmers keep their chickens in undeveloped poultry structures at night to secure them from predators. In many cases, chickens seek shelter in trees, making them vulnerable to predators, such as cats and dogs ( Guèye 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). Because of the poor status of chicken housing, theft, predation, and environmental hazards are common, significantly contributing to losses IC observed in the sector. For example, a survey in Western Zambia showed that 93% and 84% of the households interviewed attributed chicken losses to predation and thefts, respectively ( Simainga et al. 2011).

Despite the barriers and challenges experienced by SSF, IC are essential to rural communities and consumers. Consumers’ demand and preference for IC have steadily grown in the past decades ( Bett et al. 2013). The increased preference for IC results from consumers’ perceived good taste, fine texture, and health benefits, with some preferring male chickens for the large size and hens for their tenderness ( Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). Although in South Africa, studies by Dyubele et al. (2010) found that consumers prefered broilers to IC due to tenderness and other attributes. Generally, the increased demand has led to a substantial rise in prices of IC over commercial chicken meat, potentially creating an opportunity for SSF ( Guèye 2000; Ajayi 2010; Queenan et al. 2016; PAZ 2021). In Benin, consumers showed a higher preference for IC and are willing to pay US$2.67 per bird compared to US1.30 for each exotic chicken ( Rodríguez et al. 2011). Similar trends were reported in Zambia, where the IC sold nearly twice the broilers’ prices ( PAZ 2021). The Poultry Association of Zambia highlighted that in 2016, live IC sold at US$4.0, which was 33% higher than broilers, while in the first quarter of 2021, IC fetched US$6.40 per bird, which was 73% more than broilers. This trend is consistent with some studies, where IC prices were high, mainly when sold in formal markets and familiar places to consumers as proof of genuine IC ( Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016).

Consumer demand for healthy products, including IC meat and eggs, will increase with human population growth in SSA. Projections from FAO show that from 2005 to 2050, the global human population will grow to 9.8 billion, of which over 46% of growth will be in SSA, and a 60% increase in food demand is expected ( Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Scherf and Pilling 2015). The annual population growth of 1.9% in SSA with per capita food consumption of less than 2500 (Kcal/person/day) and annual undernutrition levels 20% higher than other regions predicted between 2005 and 2050 will demand increased food supply in the region ( Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Scherf and Pilling 2015). This population increase may create an opportunity for SSF involved in the production of IC.

Apart from increased food demand, the population dynamics are likely to affect the consumption patterns of animal-based protein, which accounts for 40% of the total protein consumed by humans ( Lebbie and Ramsay 1999; Boland et al. 2013; Mueller et al. 2015). Some scholars also predict that the emergence of the middle class will highly influence meat consumption in low-income countries, which will require applying technology and innovation to meet the demand for meat during what is termed the livestock revolution ( Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). Globally, from 2000 to 2050, researchers predict an 82% increase in meat consumption, equivalent to 233-271 million MT, of which 88 million MT is poultry and over 183 million MT from bovine, ovine and pig meat combined ( Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Boland et al. 2013; Scherf and Pilling 2015). In other regions, meat consumption will increase slowly. However, the volumes demanded will be substantial, especially in SSA, where the farming population will get older, and a majority will migrate to urban areas as the middle class expands ( Klingholz 2020). Selected approaches to sustainability and promoting conservation of IC AnGR among rural communities are outlined in the sections below.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation promotes five strategic areas for using and conserving indigenous AnGR ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). These are: (i) enhancing knowledge on the characterisation of local animals, (ii) developing sufficient institutional frameworks for AnGR management, enhancing linkages among livestock farmers and stakeholders concerning policies and programmes, and (iii) Enhance awareness through education, training and research in significant areas of AnGR management, (iv) Enhancing breeding strategies and programs to harness available AnGR and match them with environments of production and requirements of societies and (v) increase diversification of conservation programs and possibly mix some approaches that use existing livestock breeds in the typical production environment and consider gene banks’ use to store genetic materials. To implement the five areas, FAO required individual countries to undertake various programs toward the stated strategies by forming AnGR conservation committees and submitting biodiversity status reports to the FAO Commission on biodiversity ( Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Despite researchers sharing a consensus on the socioeconomic roles of IC in SSA, there are fewer attempts to holistically find solutions to challenges faced in the IC sector, including the continued loss of IC-AnGR and low socioeconomic gains by SSF ( Dolberg 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). The Poultry Association of Zambia expressed similar concerns regarding obscure solutions for SSF in Zambia’s poultry sector. Generally, the problems faced by the IC sector in SSA are also associated with unsustainable use of IC-AnGR, lack of animal management and disease control skills, and absence of value addition, among others ( Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; PAZ 2021). Initiating interventions that foster the sustainable development of the IC sector is essential for securing IC breeds and enhancing rural livelihoods in SSA ( Rodríguez et al. 2011). The involvement of rural communities in community-based interventions empowered SSF through decision-making and livestock business ownership ( Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015). Most importantly, researchers found that community-based interventions were the sustainable option for conserving local AnGR through judicious utilization, continuous improvements, and a more reliable long-term approach suitable for rural communities, particularly in low-income countries ( Mueller et al. 2015).

Developing an innovation based on the local context is essential in promoting the conservation of IC-AnGR, enhancing socioeconomic gains, and increasing adoptions among SSF in the IC sector. There are guidelines and principles for designing community-based interventions, as highlighted by ( Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; Scherf and Pilling 2015). A collective approach based on shared interests among researchers, communities and stakeholders would create sustainable and workable strategies to conserve IC-AnGR in SSA. Governments in SSA need to design sustainable agriculture programs, increase investment in research and promote sound policies that encourage the participation of youths in agribusiness and food production ( Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Klingholz 2020). In a few decades, SSF working in isolation in SSA may face more constraints than those working collectively ( Livingston et al. 2011). Farmer belonging to organised groups would improve production and productivity, achievable through good management, sustainable use and conservation of IC-AnGR, and improved disease control, nutrition and value addition ( Livingston et al. 2011; Mueller et al. 2015; Queenan et al. 2016).

Mobilising SSF into organised groups would make it easy link farmers to formal markets for their chickens, eggs and other products ( Bagopi et al. 2014; Livingston et al. 2011; PAZ 2021). Further, farmers would have opportunities to negotiate for better policies affecting the IC sector and access an equitable market share ( PAZ 2021). Exploiting the existing local market niches, which are driven by consumer preference for IC meat and eggs, may increase IC flock sizes, enhance rural livelihoods and create an opportunity for sustainable use and in situ conservation of IC in SSA ( Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Generally, there are issues related to community-based interventions, including instances where particular challenges hindered the progress of these interventions. Mueller et al. (2015) highlighted a lack of trust in financial matters and technical problems that potentially affected the sustainability and continuation of particular interventions. For example, in Bolivia, where the objective of the intervention was to improve the fibre quality of wool from llamas, problems such as politics, financial mistrust, and funding challenges resulted in low sustainability and the eventual collapse of the innovation ( Mueller et al. 2015).

Promoting poultry development plans based on exotic breeds instead of IC would be less valuable to resource-poor SSF. The new breeds may not adapt to the uncontrolled environment in rural communities ( Scherf and Pilling 2015). Some challenges associated with exotic breeds include low literacy, lack of records, diseases, high prices and production costs for SSF ( Mueller et al. 2015; Mtileni et al. 2016; Sebho 2016; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Therefore, considering the local context, IC breeds, and promoting ownership of the intervention formulated through engagements of stakeholders is crucial to the sustainable conservation of IC-AnGR in SSA. The erosion of IC-AnGR is one urgent challenge which requires immediate interventions to secure the highly adapted chicken breeds and ensure better livelihoods for rural communities in SSA.

The voices and views of the target rural communities and understanding the local situation are essential in intervention programs ( Patton 2010; Bryman 2016). Analysis of various community-based interventions in low-income countries showed that research institutions and government support were crucial in achieving the established objectives ( Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Institutional support motivates farmers to open up to their challenges, work hard and feel a sense of ownership of the program.

Zambia has strived to adhere to the guidelines of FAO. The country implements planned programs through research and extension services of the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. Agendas such as farmer engagements and capacity building with donor support on climate-resilient projects, establishing livestock breeding centres across the country, promoting farmer-driven innovation such as community-based programs on IC, multiplication of IC breeds at Mazabuka research station in the Southern province of Zambia ( MFL 2019). Through the African Union InterAfrican Bureau for African Animal Resources, Zambia formulated and launched the National Strategic Action Plan in 2018-2019 to develop sustainable use and conservation of indigenous livestock breeds, including IC-AnGR in Zambia ( MFL 2019).

Developing a sustainable IC sector based on understanding the production systems used by SSF, clearly defined roles of stakeholders, and the analysing the value of IC has the potential to strengthen its sustainable conservation and enhance rural livelihoods in SSA. The successes of researcher-community-stakeholder engagements in identifying problems and designing solutions highlight the determination of the researcher to reduce poverty in rural communities ( Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Adapting fundamental and practical principles from guidelines from rural poultry farming, FAO, and community-based interventions justifies why projects targeting rural communities are well-placed for the IC sector in SSA.

Selective adoption of workable approaches based on lessons learnt from other community-based interventions in low-income countries would increase the use and conservation of native chicken breeds and improve livelihoods for rural communities ( Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; Scherf and Pilling 2015).