Astronomically, Borana zone is between 3° 31” 31”’ to 6° 35” 37”’ latitude and 36° 42”’ 38”’ to 39° 45”15”’ E longitudes ( Homann et al., 2008; Lemenih, et al., 2011). It is located in the southern part of Oromia regional state of Ethiopia. Yabello the capital town of Borana Zone is 570 km South of the capital city, Addis Ababa ( Tura and Ramachandra Reddy, 2015). It borders Kenya in the South, Somali Regional State and Gudji Zone in the East, and the Sidama Region, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNPR) in the north and west ( Godana, 2016). The landscape of the zone is mainly lowlands with slightly undulating peaks up to 2000 meters above sea level in some areas ( Berhanu and Beyene, 2015). The land area is 63,939 km ² ( Dirriba et al., 2020; Dalle, 2014). The projected population of Borana Zone is 1,626,930 (Male 821,733 and Female 805,197) with the majority (97%) living in rural areas; Borana Oromo is the largest community in the area with interconnected Oromo groups of Garba and Burdji ( Desta, 2006; Homann et al., 2008; Berhanu and Beyene, 2015; Demisachew and Abiyot, 2019; Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

Agro-ecologically, it is semi-arid lowlands and frequently prone to severe drought within a year to year increasing trends in causing damage in the study area ( Ambelu, 2015). There are four locally defined seasons in which annual rainfall distribution and the dry period patterns of the study area are bimodal in character ( Takele, 2015). Mean annual rainfall of the area is between 400 to 700 mm ( Berhanu, 2011). Normally, the long/main rain season ( Ganna rain) is between March and May; and the short rain season ( Hagayya rain) is between September and November (Lemenih, 2011; Zewdie et al., 2015). The onset and cessation of both rainfall seasons are often irregular in duration; and are scattered in spatial coverage ( Bule, 2021). The warm dry seasons ( Bona Hagayya) is between December and February with a high evapo-transpiration rate ( Dalle, 2014); and the cool dry season ( Bona Adoolessa) is between June and August ( Lemenih et al., 2011; Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

The main important sources of livelihoods are pastoralism and/or livestock production; under semi-sedentary basis ( Tadicha, 2015). Borana pastoralists are known by the husbandry of the world famous livestock of Boran cattle breeds ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022). Periodical livestock mobility strategy is the common drought risk spreading mechanisms which allow Borana pastoralists to use ecologically/seasonally variable scarce communal natural resources ( Mengistu, 2016). The holistic Oromo traditional administration/the Geda system is still mainly functional among the Borana Oromo community of Southern Ethiopia. In line with this, traditionally, in Borana zone of Southern Ethiopia indigenous weather forecasting knowledge practices and information are the basis of livelihood decision making. Drought, scarcity of water, rangeland degradation, poor market system, lack of infrastructure, weak disaster preparation, weak service delivery system/lack of strong institution, weakening of the customary indigenous system and lack of appropriate pastoral oriented development policy exacerbated the adverse effects of the drought in the area ( Godana, 2016; Mohamed, 2019; Dirriba et al., 2020; Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

In this study all the steps and procedures of data collection process were adapted from the indigenous holistic theory ( Mwinzi, 2015; Absolon, 2022). Indigenous peoples have unique means of relating to the world ( Absolon, 2022). Indigenous peoples always have been engaged in research in relation to their environment. Indigenous holistic theory is multi-layered; earth-based, ecological, cyclical, relational and its’ methodologies derive from teaching experiences and relational storytelling about the land, sun, water, sky and all of creation ( Mwinzi, 2015; Absolon, 2022). Indigenous research methods are mainly dependent on the common principles of respect, relevance, reciprocity and responsibility to indigenous holism, collectivisms, indigenous identity and indigenous ethics ( Pidgeon and Riley, 2021; Bruchac, 2022). Holistic theory includes an intermixing and consideration of time and space: the past, present, future and values that retain the balance and harmony of all ( Champagne, 2008; Absolon, 2022).

Theoretically, indigenous holism values the interconnections of the self to the animate and inanimate, as well as the metaphysical relationships within and between the physical, emotional, cultural/social, and intellectual realms. It also focuses on the interrelationships of the individual to family, community/nation, and lands/waters and indigenous governance ( Mwinzi, 2015; Coates et al., 2022). Indigenous research practices are based on respect for indigenous ways of knowing and being, relevance to the community/nation, reciprocity in research processes, and responsibility in the relationships between researchers and the community. Additionally, indigenous research methods provide guiding principles on how one should be working with indigenous peoples, which include identity and respect for indigenous knowledge ( K. E. Absolon, 2016; Pidgeon and Riley, 2021). In line with this, this study used a field research approach in the whole process of data collection. The essential idea is that the researcher goes into the field to observe the phenomenon in its natural state ( van Lierop, 2015; Van de Ven, 2017). In the field research approach researcher typically takes continuous extensive field notes which are subsequently coded and analyzed in a variety of ways ( Whitney et al., 2008).

Similarly, all research subjects and variables under this study were purposively selected to directly reach/explore the major representative samples and quality data in the study area. To easily manage the process of this study, 13 districts of the zone were grouped into five c lusters that consist of Yabello, Teltele, Gomole, Dirre and Moyale based on the proximate of the area to each other for the purpose of this study. Traditionally, Borana Oromo communities and their local stakeholders know well experienced weather forecasting elders in the community; and could compare them with their varying capacity including anyone who is more specialized in stars based indigenous weather forecasting. Purposively, selection of the participants and formation of the clusters were undertaken in collaboration with the relevant stakeholders/organizations including GOs, NGOs, community based organization and community representatives at villages, districts and cluster levels, respectively. In this regard, in the sampling process stakeholders were participated in the selection and verification/ratification of research participants to identify whether/not appropriate individuals with in-depth knowledge of the variables under study were properly included in the selection without any bias.

Data were collected through focus group discussions with FGD participants, experimental groups and key informant interviews that were held at the aforementioned clusters. Accordingly, 5 focus group discussions, each consisting of 12 participants (8 males and 4 females) were involved in data generation. Regarding the experimental groups, 5 groups (clusters) each consisted of 4 participants (a total of 20 participants) of well experienced traditional astronomical weather forecasters were used for gathering data. In addition, 10 key knowledgeable informants (6 males and 4 females) were interviewed. In this regard, in addition to aforementioned research groups; reserve participants including 4 males and 1 female of FGD participants, 5 males and 1 female of experimental groups’ participants, and 3 males and 1 female of key informant interview participants were formed to use in case of a probable withdrawal of a given participant due to illness, mobility in search of pasture and water; and due to other overlapping duties. Accordingly, in the first phase of the data collection 1 female FGD participant and in the third and fourth phases of data collection 2 female FGD and 2 female experimental groups participants informed us of their withdrawal ahead of the start of the data collection, Hence, they were replaced by the reserve participants that were already prepared for this purpose. During data collection, four enumerators who have in-depth knowledge of the variable under the study were participated in all the steps and phases of the data collection after receiving training on the topic and issues of the study. In addition, indigenous ethics: greeting, introduction and up to-date scenario briefing were done at the beginning of the study. Next, opening of the discussion was held with respect to almighty God based on a blessing by three elders including one woman elder under the shade of the ever-green tree locally known as oda. Third, discussion was held with free, fair and equal participation. Finally, at the end of the daily discussion brief thanksgiving to the almighty God was held.

Data were collected in three months lead time of each season. The data were collected in four subsequent rounds/seasons; starting from the seasons of Bona Hagaya (warm dry season of December to February), Ganna (main rainfall season of March to May), Bona Addolessa (cool dry season of June to August) and Roba Hagayyaa (small rainfall season of September to November) of 2021. According to the local calendar of the study area New Year begins on the first day of December.

FGD interview guides in this research mainly focused on identifying the types of stars, periodical based physical outlooks/color of stars, total number of dates of loss of visibility and (re) observation of stars in the year within the observable dimension of the sky in the study area; and continuously varied direction of the stars, periodically varied temporal and positional patterns of the stars that are used for weather forecasting in the study area, In addition, alignments and the defects of the alignments of the stars with each Moon on their predetermined night that are counted from the first date of the new Moon and its effects on the future weather phenomena were used to guide the FGDs. In connection with this, nature/new Moon emerging driven Borana Oromo’s abstractly made 27 day patterns which are reconfigured and varied with in each month of a year and its effects on future weather phenomena were used as a FGD guide during the data collection. Furthermore, time lapse between the forecasting, the probable occurrence of the weather events and its role in livelihood decision making process are among the major FGD guides that we used in the data collection of this research.

The details of the data were collected through defining, reading and observation of varied multidimensional outlooks of the weather indicating features of the stars that are continuously varying in their positional and temporal (star-moon alignment) based reconfiguration patterns. Defining, reading, and observing of the three types of stars that were well-known in the area by the representation of: 1) Bakkalcha Dheera (toll star), 2) Bakkalcha goofoo (medium stars/venues) and 3) 12 groups of normal stars which are varied in their numbers and group formation patterns were used for main data collection. Abstractly made sequential list of 27 Borana Oromo traditional date patterns of the moon which are periodically reconfigured (date patterns in one month is different from date patterns of the next month) in chronological order within each of the 12 months of the year are used in the data collection. In addition, moon day/the day on which each new moon is re-emerges in the sky and day of star-moon alignment/defect of the star-moon alignments that are counted from the first date of the new moon, etc., were used in the data collection process ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022). During defining, reading and observing of the features of the stars; ratification of the projection/forecast (mainly normal occurrence of rainfall/severe drought) was established by the research participants upon the interpretation of the future weather indicating features of the moon/stars. Finally, verifications of the accuracy of the future weather phenomena were done against the projection/established forecast of the future weather indicating features of the stars. In this study, data were collected through using semi-structured questionnaires and open ended interview guides. Direction/positions, physical/colors of the stars and types of the stars which are indicating upcoming season’s phenomena are among the some of the qualitative data variables.

The ethical clearance letter of this study/No/002/2022 was signed and given by Teshome Tefesse (PhD) secretary of institutional review board of the college of development studies of Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia. The proposal of the research was reviewed by the committee of institutional review board which comprises Professor Dr. Feyera Senbeta, Dr. Teshome Tefese, Dr. Meskerem Abdi, Professor Mogose Ashanafi, assistant professor Dr. Aseffa Seyum, and assistant professor Dr. Nigatu Regasa. Written informed consent was obtained from the research participants which allows to publish and publicize their data in any possible way without any limitation. It also stated that participants have the right to participate or not to participate and to communicate in a language they could speak in the provision of data. In this regard, from the beginning participants well know as the data were collected for the PhD dissertation of the correspondent authors which could be published in any possible way.

As depicted in Table 1; the counting of the first day for each month/moon in column 3 begins from the first probable day on which each particular moon of that particular month is expected to emerge. Out of 12 moons of the month ( Table 1 column 3) nine of them have two probable emerging days which makes them 30 days per month and three of them have three probable bearing days which makes them 31 days per month. In this regard, as depicted in Table 2; for all moons, counting begins from the first probable of their emerging day ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022). In this regard, see as an example Table 2 that was derived from Table 1.

Counting of the days of each particular new moon of the month ends on the second probable emerging/born day of the moon for those of the moon having two probable days to born/to emerge; and end on the third probable days for those of the moon having three probable day to emerge ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022). In this regard, for example November moon/month which was derived from the referee Table 1 is depicted in Table 2.

It can be seen from Table 2 that the November moon emerged on the day of the Gidada. The lunar cycle of 1 ^st up to 15 ^th dates of the November moon ( Gidada up to Walla) are locally called the light/bright moon nights of the November month ⁵ . The lunar cycle of the 16 ^th up to 30 ^th dates of the November moon ( Basa dura up to Ruda) are locally called the dark moon nights of the November month. When it is seen, the November moon has only 29 days. However, it has 30 days. In this case, next to the day of Ruda, next to serial number 29 in the hidden phase of the double counting there was one full dark night without the Moon visible in the night sky which is locally called Luwoo ⁶ of November moon/30 ^th date of November. In line with this, because the November moon has two probable emerging days which consist of Gidada and Ruda, serial number 1 to 2 in the emerging phase of the moon/the total days of the November moon are 30. The Diba ⁷ (final hardly observable decreased margin in the hidden phase of the moon) of the November moon was observed on the day of the Ruda which was represented by the serial number 29 of the column 4 in the Table 2. The probability of the emergence of the October moon is on the day of Gidada (serial number 1) or Ruda (serial number 2). In this case, there is a common belief that when the November moon has emerged on the day of Gidada the probability of severe drought in the Bona Hagayyaa (December to February) and the scarcity of rainfall in the upcoming Ganna season (March to May) would be very high in the study area. Hence, the study community believed that the devastating drought of 2021/2022 was caused by the anomalous emergence of the November moon on the day of Gidada. Similarly ( Lehoux, 2021) found that in ancient Greek new and full moons were used to determine general weather conditions. Mcmillan quoted in ( Loretta, 2014) revealed that Botswana communities have prominent phonological markers of cultural astronomy that signal the change of the seasons; predict droughts as well as weather related diseases by watching the movements of celestial bodies ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

There is a sequential alignment between the Moon and stars on a predetermined date which was counted from the re-observation of the very beginning of the first day of that particular moon in the sky (see Table 3). Each moon of the year has its own predetermined date on which it has to align directly with the stars. In this regard, when the alignment of the Moon and the stars are defected from its naturally predetermined date; there will be high probability of the occurrence of the severe drought in the upcoming season. Similarly, in a Kamaroja/Uganda study of Mulegna cited in ( Ibrahimm, 2020) argued that the occurrence of clusters of the stars’ relationship with the moon indicate the challenges in the coming season; however, it was not identified the type of stars in relation with the temporal patterns of the Moon.

As shown in Table 3, the nature driven predetermined day on which the Moon was aligned sequentially with the star which was locally called Lammi was on 15 ^th September ( Bira), 12 ^th October ( Ciqawaa), 9 ^th November ( Sadaasa), 7 ^th December ( Arfasa), 5 ^th January ( Amaji), 3 ^rd February ( Guraandhala) and 1 ^st March ( Bitotesa) for indicating the normal occurrence of upcoming Ganna rainfall season (March up to May). The others stars which were locally called Busan, Sorsa, Algajim, Arba, Walla, and Basaa were aligned on their own predetermined days sequentially with the Moon as depicted in Table 3. In this regard, if the alignment of the Moon and Lammii star; and other stars following Lammii on their own day deviated from this nature-driven predetermined date that was counted from the very beginning of the first day of the new Moon, it would result in a postponement of the start of the Ganna rainfall (March to May) season, i.e. there would be severe drought in the Bona Hagaya (December to February). In this case, from all the stars the one which was making first alignment with the Moon was Lammii and the other stars were sequentially aligned turn by turn in their nature based pre-determined temporal patterns as displayed ( Table 3).

If the November moon was aligned with the Lammii stars on the 10 ^th November instead of the 9 ^th November; it would result in delay of Ganna rainfall by one month. In order to get Ganna rain, lately by one month, the Moon of November has to be aligned with Lammii stars in the next Moon of literally December 9 ^th; but on a nature dependent normal moon counting basis it was on the Moon/month of 9 ^th November (which means a delay of one month). In this regard, when such defects/events of the star-moon alignment was happening; in the normal Moon counting basis both November and December Moons become only one month; the previous November Moon defect was adjusted or aligned on the next December Moon/month. This is due to the fact that the November Moon was not aligned with the Lammii star on its previous predetermined day. Hence, it will have to adjust or will align on the December month; however, in vis-à-vis star-moon alignment and on the sequence of moon counting basis it was November Moon. Star-moon alignment of November was waiting for the re-adjustment of the November Moon alignment with the Lammii star in the next coming December Moon; this situation resulted in little/total failure of 2021 Ganna rainfall in the study area.

Even if it was known that in normal counting cycle a year has only 12 months, nature-based adjustments of the defects of the star-moon alignment could make months of a year 13 or more months. Hence, in order to get rain it is mandatory to wait for the nature based re-adjustments of the star-moon alignments. This causes lack of rain in both Ganna (March to May) and Hagayya (September to October) rainfall seasons of 2020 and 2021 in the study area. Despite the fact that the concern of the star moon alignment was not raised, similar studies conducted in Australia ( Gantevoort and Hamacher, 2015; Hamacher et al., 2015) posited that indigenous peoples observe the motions and positions of stars to develop seasonal calendars; it also stated that changing properties of stars, such as their brightness and color, were also used for weather prediction.

Torban, Korma Maddo and Wajjinoo stars: These stars are used for the forecasting of the Hagaya rainfall season (September to October). However, these stars did not align with the Moon like the above stars used for the forecasting of the Ganna rainfall season (March to May). In indicating the close of the Hagaya rainfall season Torbaa star was hidden in the moon of July ( Obbora Guddaa). In contrast, when this star was not yet hidden in the moon of July; the upcoming Hagaya rainfall (September to October) would not occur in its normal time or delayed from its usual time. The Torbii star was observable in the night sky through the Southeastern direction of Borana; it emerged in the southeast, traveled some distance towards the middle of the sky and set through the north eastern direction of Borana areas. The Torbi star was also used for the forecasting of the closing of Hagaya and Ganna rainfall season. It was identified through this study that during dusk at 8 – 9:00 PM (in the month of July and August) the Torbi star was used/observed for the forecasting of the Hagaya rainfall season. Similar studies ( Clarke, 2009; Beardmore, 2013; Hamacher et al., 2015) with ethnographic fieldwork in Australias Indigenous peoples; explored the various ways that they utilize stellar scintillation (twinkling) as an indicator for predicting weather and seasonal change.

Wajino and Korma Maddo stars were observed in the sky through the western direction; and were used for the forecasting of the Hagayya rainfall seasons (September to October). It is common that the Korma Maddoo star was slightly covered by cloud in the Adolessa dry season (July to August) between 8-9:00 PM. Furmata light shower of rainfall (before Hagayya rain) would be expected in the Adolessa dry season (in July and August) only when this cloud is covering the Korma Maddo star from 11: 00 up to 12:00 PM. In this case, it was believed that when the cloud stayed in the full night by covering the Korma Maddo star there would be high rainfall in the upcoming Hagaya rainfall season (September and October).

In addition, when cloud was covering the Korma Maddo star in the month/Moon of June ( wacabaji) and July ( Obora guddaa) there would be promising rainfall in the upcoming Hagaya rainfall season (September to October). Contrary to this, when the cloud was not covering the Korma Mado star in the month/Moon of June and July there will be little rainfall/severe drought in the upcoming Hagaya rainfall season (September to October). FGD participants stated that there was no cloud in this mentioned season on the Korma Maddo star in 2021 and this resulted in severe prolonged drought/failure of Hagayyaa rainfall season (September to October). Directionally, the Wajinoo star was located behind the Korma Maddo star. In this regard, when more cloud was densely covering the Wajjino star than the Korma Maddo star; more rainfall will be expected on the direction of the Wajjino star than on the Korma Maddo star. This was consistent with the studies which argued that the Australians observe the stars to determine the changing of seasons and plan when to fish, plant and harvest accordingly ( Clarke, 2009; Hamacher et al., 2015).

According to the findings of this study, directional/positional patterns of the stars that vary in location on a regular basis were commonly used in the process of predicting future weather phenomena. These stars are locally called 1) Bakkalcha Gofoo, and 2) Bakkalcha Dheeraa.

Bakkalcha Gofoo (toll stars): Despite the fact that the study area communities were unaware of it, every aspect of this Gofo star defined by the community shares characteristics with Venus. Gofo star was observed in the night sky in the western direction during the Hagaya rainfall season (September up to October), set directly through the western and hidden from observation for seven days and rose in the east at the eve of the next Ganna rainfall season (March to May). This implies that during such an occasion, the upcoming Ganna rainfall season (March to May) was very sufficient. However, when it was hidden for more than seven days without rising in the east, after setting/being hidden through the west direction; it implies that the upcoming Ganna rainfall (March to April) will be very little/may not occur at all.

Similarly, when the Gofo star (Venus) was visible in the east sky throughout the Ganna rainfall season (March to May), it set directly through the east and was hidden from the observable sphere of the night sky in the study area for 30/60/100 days ⁸ before emerging/rising in the west on the eve of the next Hagayya rainfall season (September to October). In this regard, when the Gofo star is not emerging/observed in the night sky of the western direction for 100 successive days after setting through the east this implies that the upcoming Hagayya rainfall season (September to October) will be poor/the probability of the occurrence of severe drought is very high. In connection with this, when such events are occurring (when the stars are not observed for 100 successive days in the sky without rising) rain may not sag completely during the forthcoming Hagayya rainfall season (September to October). This phenomenon actually happened in the Hagayya rainfall season (September to October) of 2021 which resulted in the devastating Horn of Africa drought of 2021/2022. In contrast to this, when the star is risen in the 60 and 30 days after it was hidden from the observation; this implies that the coming Hagaya rainfall season (September to October) will be very promising.

This was consistent with the Ryan (2013) and Hamacher et al.’s (2015) studies that pointed out, observational and positional astronomy were an important and integral component of many indigenous knowledge systems in Australia. Other Similar studies undertaken by Teichelmann and Schürmann (1840) cited in Hamacher (2015) supported this current study which revealed that, periodic appearance of particular stars in the night sky was governing seasons in Kaurna traditions. For example, autumn was signaled by the morning appearance of the star Parna. The hot season was governed by the Wolta wild turkey constellation and Spring was under the influence of Wilto eagle star. Winter rainy season was not associated with any particular star in the record. This study was also consistent with Scofield (2010) and Fuller (2020) which stated that the full synodic cycle of Venus, the cycle of the relationship between Venus and the Sun consists of two primary phases that we know as the morning and evening star. This current study is also supported by the studies of Simonia et al. (2008), Scofield (2010) and Hamacher (2019) on Gregorian Mesopotamian and the Mayan astrologers which confirmed that these Celestial phases have influences on terrestrial phenomena such as rainfall, food supply, outcome of wars, and on all human affairs.

The Borana Oromo community has a belief that all aspects of the favorable conditions locally called Finnaa which include success of fertility, timely occurrence of rainfall, and availability of pasture, etc. were promising when the Gofo star was observable in the night sky than compared to when it was hidden. This was consistent with the study of Norton-Smith and Star (2013) undertaken on Minnesota American red Indian indigenous communities which pointed out the cyclical positional patterns of the Venus star that reside in the east at sunrise for nine months and then in the west at sunset for the following nine months. It also stated that Venus was associated with abundance, fertility, growth, death and rebirth. The pattern repeats in a nine-month cycle. In addition Norton-smith et al. (2016) found that Mayan and American indigenous communities associated Venus with abundance, fertility, growth, death and rebirth.

In contrast to this, when the Gofo star set and rose in the west/east in the epoch of the rainfall that particular rainfall season was believed to be very promising in all dimensions. While when the Gofo star was set and rose in west/east during the dry period; there would be an occurrence of severe drought in that particular dry season. When the Gofoo star sets through the eastern sky in the months of January, February and April there will be occurrence of drought in the Ganna rainfall season (March to May). When the Gofoo star was risen in the brown cloud through both directions there will be an occurrence of drought which will result in mass death of livestock. This was consistent with Hamacher et al. (2015) who state that particular asterisms or bright stars that rise or set at dusk or dawn foretell changing seasons and are often portrayed as important ancestral figures in indigenous creation stories.

The length of the normal July dry season (June up to August/September) which was locally known as Bona Adolessa was three months and the length of the winter dry season (end of November up to early February) which was locally known as Bona Hagaya was three month. Hagaya rainfall started to sag after the emergence of the Moon of the Obora Xiqqaa. When the Gofo star had emerged and disappeared from observation in the month of Obora xiqqaa (August), Hagaya rainfall was not sufficient and resulted in shortage of the water and pasture. When the Gofo star emerged in the month of the Birra (September) and disappeared from observation in the month of the Onkololessa (October) or in the month of Sadaasa (November); it was indicated that the Hagaya rainfall (March to October) would be good; and no drought problem.

Bakkalcha Dheeraa: It provides very little indication about weather forecasting. It rises and also sets through the western direction. Prior to a week or before two weeks of rainfall; the physical colour of this star is shining and bulged, however, when rainfall is not close to occur it appeared to be shrinking, full of dust/not shining. This is consistent with the studies of Clarke (2009) and Hamacher et al. (2015) who found that the visible properties of stars, such as their color, brightness, changes in brightness, and relative positions with respect to the horizon all have special significance and applications to seasonal and traditional law and social structure.

In this study, it was discovered that the local community in the study area has long trusted indigenous weather forecasting practices, particularly in the role of seasonal weather indicating features of the stars in drought resilience. The study discovered that in the ordinary pastoral mode of life, daily livelihood activities such as water and pasture land management, mobility, herd splitting, herd diversification, social support, livestock selling, and opportunistic crop farming are carried out based on indigenous weather/drought forecasting information, which is found particularly through the definition of weather indicating features of the stars. Furthermore, they frequently use and believe in its role in disaster risk reduction, such as drought, flood, disease/pest outbreak, and local conflict. In this regard, forecasting based on weather indicating features of the stars is accurate and trusted in the study area’s livelihood decision making process ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

Similarly, studies in Zimbabwe ( Shoko and Shoko, 2017) revealed that livestock numbers, water resources and pasture management all depend on indigenous weather forecasts and in particular, rainfall forecasts. A study in Benin ( Zounon et al., 2020) pointed out that, populations in the arid region have adapted to extreme climatic events, especially severe drought through their indigenous knowledge systems. In addition, this is consistent with the study in Canada which revealed that indigenous people use the sensitivity of celestial change to read critical signs from the environment that something unusual was happening. It also stated that indigenous knowledge includes processes that allow knowledge holders to adjust and modify their actions in response to environmental change ( UNESCO, 2009).

This study also identified/confirmed that when a given Borana household/community lacks/fails to use indigenous drought information, they may fail to implement appropriate drought risk reduction measures such as feed, food, and water preparation for a severe prolonged drought period. Furthermore, if a particular household does not mobile to safe area and/or sell their livestock prior to the occurrence of severe drought by using IK drought forecast information (due to a failure to use IK weather information), they will lose all or some of their livestock ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

Although all members of the community (including children and women) may have basic forecasting skills, they do not have equal capacity, i.e. there are differences in forecasting accuracy among individuals. Individuals who have mastered defining physical and temporal patterns of the stars in the process of forecasting future events such as weathers are locally known as “Heddu.” Currently, mobility, restrictions, severity of the drought, weakening of traditional institutions, abandonment of traditional lifestyles, and the death of knowledgeable elders have put into question the potential effects of indigenous weather forecasting indicators of the stars among Borana pastoralists ( Dinsa AB et al., 2022).

Studies of ancient Greek weather signs ( Beardmore, 2013) disclose that popular-practical astronomy originates before the beginnings of writing, and gained particular traction in Babylonia, where it is known to have taken place in systematic observations of celestial and meteorological phenomena. It further stated that astro-meteorology as connected to the weather, began life bound up with time-reckoning and specific activities. In this regard Clarke (2009) and Beardmore (2013) posited that regularities formed by the motions of celestial objects provided the necessary context upon which many structural symbolic patterns were built to regulate human activities on the earth.