The presence of disability culture in literature as a source of perspectives provides a remarkable opportunity to study-unique ways in which the attitudes of society develop, how individuals are built, and what it means to be alive. Dan Goodley describes the theoretical framework of Lacanian lack, desire, and the mechanism of denial in Disability Studies: An Interdisciplinary Introduction (2011). The main emphasis is placed on the novel of J. M. Coetzee’s novel entitled Slow Man and John Green’s Turtles All the Way Down, while juxtaposing the viewpoint of an abled author with that of a disabled one, respectively. The themes manifest differently, based on their relationships with disability and these texts provide fertile ground for such an analysis, revealing the intricate ways in which disability shapes human experience and consciousness.

Dan Goodley’s disability studies research elucidates the fundamental elements of lack, desire, and denial as central elements in the comprehension of disability perception and experience. Disability is “ a social process that intimately involves everyone who has a body and lives in the world of the senses” ( Davis 1995 19) . Goodley contends that the field of disability studies has not adequately scrutinized these elements and “ must challenge cultural norms that risk further pathologising disabled people” ( Goodley 2017 213). Nevertheless, with an affiliation to psychoanalysis, he cautions that one should approach psychoanalysis with a critical mindset rather than blindly accepting it ( Walters 2011). He explores Lacanian possibilities within disability studies and delineates them as “ somewhat speculative and under-developed” in existing accounts ( Goodley 2011 124). He further infers, that “ psychoanalysis might be at its most powerful when employed to make sense of organizational prejudice and discrimination against disabled people and the phantasies ideals of hyper-rationality and independence of contemporary culture” ( Goodley 2011 135).

The concept of lack pertains to the societal and personal perception of disability as an absence or deficiency, and the theoretical context that defines disability in relation to society and individuals as a deficiency or absence. As well as discrepancies that “ reclassify an individual from one socially anticipated category to a different” ( Goffman 1963 12). As per the Goodlian framework, it relates to the shortcomings of society that contribute to disability oppression and its perpetuation. He borrowed this concept from the psychoanalytical approach to suggest that lack is a core deficiency or shortfall inherent to people’s actions and societies and it is quite reasonable to view it as Lacanian manqué or real, as “ a disabled body becomes an imago of what we lack but, paradoxically, that in which we see ourselves” ( Goodley 2011 130). Based on Lacan’s theory, the separation from the mother and entry into the symbolic order (language and culture) give rise to a fundamental lack (manqué) in the human psyche. This absence fuels human longing, an eternal pursuit to satisfy the emptiness. In the terms of Jacques Lacan, it remains an unchangeable part of human nature, indicating a void familiar to everyone who feels a need in his or her life, “ body captured in the reflection contrasts markedly with the reality of the fragmented body” ( Goodley 2013 9). The desire for wholeness, or even a less severe pathology, or merely recognition stems from feelings of inferiority. Secondly, the Goodlian aspect of desire is another crucial aspect of disabled individuals, in which they seek acknowledgment and worth in society; it also demonstrates an impulse for autonomy, acceptance, and meaningful participation in social life. Lacan postulates that the quest is not solely for specific objects but also for the unattainable fullness or completeness that the original separation from the mother deprived them of. And lastly, denial involves the rejection or suppression of the realities of disability, either by the individual or by society, as well as the disregard of disabled individuals’ needs, realities, and rights. It is the mechanism through which ableist society maintains Darwinian norms and excludes disabled individuals. Consequently, in the Lacanian theory, denial is always connected to repression: people and societies opt to simply not see some things in order to maintain stable psychic and social fields. In Freudian terms, it works within the realm of the symbolic to police the proper conduct of the masses and to mask the unpleasant realities of life.

In disability studies, various authors, including Ian Parker and others, continued the narrative of psycho-sociological theories to capture the experiences of disabled people. They opine that the social model of disability is produced in society, leading to the formation of barriers as well as exclusion ( Parker 2008). British literature has rich depiction of characters with disability, which means that disability has always been a subject of social prejudice, they “ usually remain on the margins of fictions as uncomplicated figures or exotic aliens” ( Garland-Thomson 1997 9). Such stories can enact all or some of Goodley’s lack mechanism: some of his participants navigated a perceived lack of desire are also be deemed to be lacking. For instance, in Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, the creature’s main issue is the lack of social acknowledgement and acceptance that results in rejection of identification and causal recognition, hence absolute lack of such desires like companionship, recognition, and appreciation. Society’s denial of his humanity and rights ultimately drives the tragic outcomes of the story, he/she states that man does not want to communicate with her, but an unattractive and terrifying monster like herself will not reject her company; her companion must be the same species, “ I am alone and miserable: man will not associate with me; but one as deformed and horrible as myself would not deny herself to me. My companion must be of the same species and have the same defects. This being you must create” ( Shelley 1818 103). This quote reaffirms the creature’s need for fellowship and also the realization of social rejection and deprivation, “ the unconscious is therefore the discourse of the other: because language belongs to the population of others of the symbolic” ( Goodley 2017 184). This paper posits that Goodley’s lack, desire, and denial can be potent in analysing disability in various contexts. When incorporated into psychoanalytical theories, Lacanian notions and disability-known perspectives, it uncovers more vigorous social and psychological substructures that exclude disabled persons. The following concepts are also evident in English literature, illustrating how the narratives support and subvert prevailing ideas about disability.

This study employs a comparative literary analysis of Slow Man by J. M. Coetzee and Turtles All the Way Down by John Green, which focuses on the portrayal of disability from the perspectives of dis/abled authors. The themes of lack, desire, and denial are examined within the setting of these novels, drawing on psychoanalytical aspect of disability studies discussed in Disability Studies: An Interdisciplinary Introduction by Dan Goodley.

Slow Man is written by J. M. Coetzee, an abled author who shares the story of Paul Rayment, an abled man and becomes disabled after an accident in which he loses part of his limb. The identified author offers a work that can be used to analyse and discuss the question of disability and the human psyche with the use of Goodley’s theories, along with Lacanian psychoanalysis. Thus, in this novel, Paul’s journey after a cataclysmic accident presents the intricacies of these theoretical paradigms. More explicitly, the novel carefully develops the lack as the theme, especially when the audience sees Paul’s reaction to his amputation. However, to him, his disability is simply ‘out of’ status – literally, his leg– and the independence that that entailed, as well as his manhood. Coetzee writes, “ losing a leg is no more than a rehearsal of losing everything” ( Coetzee 2005 15). This vivid description encapsulates the profound sense of loss that Paul experiences, viewing his disabled body as incomplete and alien. The ‘lack’ emphasizes the societal deficiencies that marginalize individuals with disabilities. Paul experiences a profound sense of loss after losing his leg in a cycling accident. This loss is not just physical; it is also societal, as he confronts the ways in which his disability excludes him from full participation in the world around him. Furthermore, the real, or manqué, refers to a fundamental absence or void in the human experience. Paul interprets the loss of his leg as a symbol of a deeper existential void and the disruption of his previous sense of self and normalcy. Paul’s feelings of loss and inadequacy are evident when he reflects on his changed status:

His life after the accident is characterized by a deep absence, which is clearly pointed out in this quote, which refers to his physical and symbolic emptiness.

In “Slow Man,” desire is represented by Paul’s wish to regain his previous health and a certain need for contact that he seems to believe he cannot attain any longer, which is evident in his relationship with Marijana, a caregiver with whom he seems to want to initiate sexual relations. The inner conflict is most evident in Paul’s attraction to her and his desire to transcend the role of a patient. He reflects, “ he aspires to one day be her mystical bridegroom” ( Coetzee 2005 143). This quote indicates his fundamental need to be seen as sound and able to love and relate. Desire according to Goodley, refers to disabled individuals’ aspirations and longings. For Paul, desire manifests in his craving for connection and intimacy, particularly with Marijana. His aspirations extend beyond mere physical needs to a deep emotional and psychological craving for recognition and companionship. The realm of images and illusions, known as the Imaginary in Lacanian terms, forms desires. Paul’s desire for Marijana is partly an escape into the imagination, where he envisions a fulfilling relationship that compensates for his sense of lack. His contemplation reveals a tinge of romantic and sexual longing in his desire for her: “ Marijana watches… as he flexes, extends, and rotates the stump” ( Coetzee 2005 63). This depicts his developed desire that when fulfilled, provides a temporary solution to his existential mode. This is true because Paul cannot agree to the change of events, hence portraying denial. At first, he rejects the idea of using a prosthetic limb, or, in other words, he is in denial of his disability, and continues to live as the old man. He resists accepting the reality of his disability at first, referring to the prosthesis as a “ monstrous object” ( Coetzee 2005 9). He also gets treated as a fragile child and called “ poor Paul” and his condition is mentioned with great distress: “ what a pity” ( Coetzee 2005 15). He struggles with the reality of having a physical ailment that clearly humbles him, making him seek the assistance of others whenever he feels incomplete. Paul’s reluctance to form genuine relationships with Marijana, Mrs. Costello, and other characters is a manifestation of the defence mechanism called denial, due to the fear of vulnerability and rejection. He builds walls around his heart so that he cannot be hurt by rejection or abandonment, so he remains limited to solitude and self-fulfilment. This denial is also manifested in his interaction with Drago, Marijana’s son where Paul tries in vain to dominate in a patriarchal fashion given that he cannot walk anymore. Denial, according to Goodley, involves societal and personal repression or disregard for the realities and needs of disabled people. In this text, denial is evident in how Paul grapples with accepting his new identity and limitations, as well as how others, including Marijana’s family, navigate their interactions with him. In Lacanian theory, symbolic represents the social order, language, and laws that structure reality. In this realm, denial entails suppressing uncomfortable truths to maintain social harmony. Paul and those around him attempt to normalize his condition and minimize its impact. Marijana’s family’s attempt to maintain normalcy towards him by presenting him with the PR Express bicycle, while this gift symbolizes his inability to walk and reflects ableist denial. This gesture, while well-meaning, also serves to deny the profound changes and challenges Paul faces. Disability is well considered in this text from the perspectives of lack, desire, and denial from the discourse of Goodley and through the psychoanalytical lens of Lacan. The primary themes present in this novel include the impact and outcomes of disability on the psychological state, struggle and desire to be accepted, a representation of life and living, and that of society and culture on human life alive.

On the other hand, John Green, himself a disability activist who suffers from mental illness, brings the understanding of the disability system from an insider’s viewpoint and in Turtles All the Way Down, the protagonist is named Aza Holmes. In this way, the themes of mental health and the various hardships that one can experience particularly the obsessions-compulsion disorder (OCD), are addressed delicately. Even though the term ‘lack’ refers to the lack of the mother figure in Lacanian psychoanalysis, desire and denial are the main aspects to comprehend Goodlian internal and external struggles, while reading the novel. Continuing that account, in the book, Goodley discusses lack to describe how society has a lack of provision and facilities that bring difficulty to people with impairments. In the case of Aza, this lack takes the form of intrusive thoughts that constantly dominate her life causing her to never full attached or detached from the world. In her thought process, Aza’s lack is most poignantly summarized, and this is where she searches for things that she does not have. Goodley’s concept of lack emphasizes the societal deficiencies and barriers that exacerbate the struggles of individuals with disabilities. In this novel, Aza’s OCD is not just a personal battle but also a reflection of the societal inability to fully understand or accommodate mental health issues. And Lacan’s notion of manqué refers to a fundamental sense of absence or void that shapes human existence. For Aza, this manifests as the pervasive, uncontrollable thoughts that dominate her life, creating an ongoing sense of disconnection and alienation. Aza’s feelings of lack are encapsulated in her reflections on her mental state: “ I was beginning to learn that your life is a story told about you, not one that you tell” ( Green 2017 1). This quote portrays her perception of OCD as a reality controlling her and emptying out the inner self.

The Goodlian desire pertains to the individual’s needs and wants, encompasses the need for normalcy and the general sense of the ability to be understood and accepted. In Aza’s case, desire is seen where she wants to find a new life that is free from the tormenting intrusive thoughts and be closely related to her loved ones, especially Davis. The structures of human psyche associate the imaginary with the image, illusion, desires, and ideals. Aza’s construction of the relationship with Davis and a near-normal adolescent life is symbolic of her fantasy which in this case depicts her desire for a different life, one free from OCD. Aza’s yearning for connection and normalcy is evident in her interactions with Davis, “ you’re both the fire and the water that extinguishes it. You’re the narrator, the protagonist, and the sidekick. You’re the storyteller and the story told. You are somebody’s something, but you are also your you” ( Green 2017 257). The incessant bombardment of her ideas perpetually hinders her, undermining her profound need for meaningful communication, existence, and connection.

Denial is the societal and personal suppression or disregard of the realities faced by individuals with disabilities. Green employs it through Aza and those around her, who struggle to acknowledge the full impact of her OCD. Denial, in the symbolic realm, involves the suppression of uncomfortable truths to maintain social norms. Aza observes that her peers, as well as herself, often downplay or misunderstand her condition. Aza’s struggle with denial is evident in her attempt to maintain normalcy despite her overwhelming OCD: “ I wanted to tell her that I was getting better, that it didn’t hurt as much anymore. But that wasn’t true” ( Green 2017 85). This quote reinforces her internal conflict and the external pressures to appear “normal,” highlighting the societal denial of the severity of her condition.

To exemplify the interplay of these three concepts in the Turtles All the Way Down novel, it is essential to explore the scene when Aza attempts to discuss it with Davis but gets interrupted by her obsessive thoughts. Here, Aza and Davis are in front of a pool, trying to empathize but obviously failing at it. Hoping to have a better rapport with her, he is airing out his emotions and weaknesses here. However, obsessive thoughts about germs and stains dominate her mind, making it difficult for her to react in the same way and remain open towards him. Therefore, Goodlian lack is evident in Aza’s inability to fully engage with Davis as her OCD creates a barrier that prevents her from participating in the moment as she desires. This barrier is not just physical or mental, but also societal, as there is a dearth of understanding and accommodation for her condition. The Lacanian Real, or manqué, manifests in Aza’s intrusive thoughts. These thoughts explain a complete shift in her perception of reality and leave a vacuum, which denies her an authentic presence in the process. This scene can be interpreted as a process of how reality invades the domains of imagination and symbolism, as a consequence Aza cannot reliably construct a healthy state of self and relationship. Aza’s longing for a normal relationship with Davis reflects Goodlian notion of desire. She wants to be present and connect with him on a deeper level, free from the constraints of her OCD. This desire drives her actions and attempts to overcome her intrusive thoughts, even though they ultimately dominate her. The imaginary construct is where the desires takes form. This is an imaginative construct. That is the reason why she has aspired to have an intimate relationship with Davis without the restriction of OCD in her life, which is paradoxical to her real-life situation, resulting in a significant gap between her dreams and reality. Aza denies having OCD when she informs her mother that it is not a severe condition, in accordance with the characteristics that Goodley outlined. She yearns for a “normal” existence and is unwilling to be perpetually aware of her ailment while conversing with Davis. Although he endeavours to understand her circumstances, this serves as an illustration of society’s unwillingness to acknowledge the suffering of individuals with disabilities.

In the Lacanian symbolic order, this scene highlights the social and linguistic structures that shape Aza and Davis’ interactions. Aza’s impairment constrains both the social expectation to form romantic connections and the language they use to express their feelings. The symbolic order here serves to both connect and alienate, as the words they exchange are laden with unspoken fears and misunderstandings. In Turtles All the Way Down, John Green explores the complexities of living with OCD through Aza’s experiences, which can be deeply analysed. using Goodley’s concepts of lack, desire, and denial, and Lacanian psychoanalysis. Aza’s journey illustrates how these theoretical frameworks intersect to shape her reality, her desires, and the societal responses she encounters. Looking at this particular scene, viewers can observe these dynamics at work in her behaviour and her mental processes, which provides a realistic portrayal of the existence of mental disorders. The presentation of the obsessive-compulsive disorder does not portray as a deficiency within Aza, but as a teenager’s characteristics. Green asserts, “ I is the hardest word to define. How do you know if you are real?” ( Green 2017 78). This introspective question highlights Aza’s constant battle with her sense of self, shaped by her OCD. Desire in this text is more about the quest for understanding and acceptance rather a return to normalcy. Aza desires to navigate the world without the overwhelming interference of her intrusive thoughts, but she understands that this might always be a part of her life. Her relationship with Davis Pickett exemplifies this nuanced desire. Aza is acutely aware of how her OCD affects their relationship, but she yearns for Davis to understand and accept her as she is. Green writes, “y ou think you’re the painter, but you’re the canvas” ( Green 2017 01), emphasizing Aza’s struggle with self-perception and her desire for an identity beyond her mental illness. Denial here is less about rejecting the disability itself and more about Aza’s fear of how others perceive her. She often denies herself the possibility of a “normal” life, not because she rejects her OCD but because she believes others cannot see past it. This is evident when she says, “ I can no more choose my thoughts than choose my name” ( Green 2017 59). This reflects a meticulous form of denial, in which Aza feels trapped by her condition and the perceptions of those around her.

Psychoanalysis illuminates the intricate psychological dimensions of characters, providing a deeper understanding of their motivations, conflicts, and development. With the analysis of the constituents such as sexual instincts, dream images, censoring, and drives, it enlightens the interaction between consciousness and the subconscious thus contributing to a deeper understanding of literature. Authors deliberately integrate these contorted psychological layers into their work, whether intentionally or unintentionally, allowing readers to interpret the character from a psychoanalytic perspective. Similarly, disabled writers perceive and depict the lives of disabled individuals through Goodley’s framework of lack-desire-denial, which provides a perceptive perspective ( Goodley 2014). Analysing and integrating these concepts with Lacanian theory provides a comprehensive comprehension of the intersection between societal structures, individual narratives, and disabled protagonists. Additionally, the work contains an existential analysis that may elicit questions from readers regarding the author’s experiences and thoughts, which serve as the foundation for the concepts outlined. This literature enables the examination of the different dynamics of life and the perpetual pursuit of recognition and respect, revealing the complexity of life. According to the authors’ perspective on disability, the Goodlian approach to denial, desire, and lack reveals significant distinctions.

The primary concept highlights how society as a whole confronts denial, rather than how individuals cope with it, through the integration of knowledge and acknowledgment. Green’s text shows that the issue is society’s prejudices and perceptions of disability. These contradictory portrayals are of greater importance to the fields of disability culture and literature. On the other hand, Coetzee’s text “ is a symbol of the failure of telling a story” ( Dolcerocca 2017 220) and can be characterized as mainstream due to its emphasis on the physical and social impediments that disabled individuals face in society. It has the potential to foster positive attitudes and enhance understanding of the experiences of disabled individuals; however, it can also establish a clearly defined stereotype of disability as a tragedy. On the one hand, Green’s portrayal is consistent with the contemporary perspective on neurodiversity and the social model of disability, which is predicated on the intransgressible nature of social barriers rather than the subjects’ non-pertinent nature. Initially, Green prompts readers to revaluate the systems of thought that impede one’s ability to integrate into the disability culture by incorporating OCD as an inherent aspect of Aza’s character. Coetzee delineates the implications for the digestive tract, as well as the sense of estrangement and loss associated with disability. Conversely, Green’s work incorporates the concept of mental illness into the various strata of identity, with an emphasis on comprehending the illness and appreciating those who experience it.

Green’s first-hand experience with mental disorders offers a comprehensive perspective on the condition as an inherent aspect of personality, while Slow Man also reflects ableism in its depiction of the physical and social consequences of disability. Coetzee’s decisions illuminate the manner in which the physical and social environment deprives disabled individuals of the opportunity to lead a normal life. Furthermore, they may induce a positive pity response in the reader, perpetuating stereotypical perceptions of these individuals. On the other hand, Green’s narration confronts cultural bias and directs the reader toward a unique perspective that is consistent with the objectives of modern disability studies. These representations illustrate the importance of diverse perspectives in literature, particularly those provided by disabled authors, in the development of a more comprehensive narrative about disability culture.

Shruti Pandey https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5010-7960.