F1000ResearchF1000Research2046-1402F1000 Research LimitedLondon, UK10.12688/f1000research.158455.3Research ArticleArticlesAn extended Theory of Planned Behavior in explaining intention toward sustainable forest management: Evidence from COVID 19 Pandemic from Bali, Indonesia
[version 3; peer review: 1 approved, 2 approved with reservations]
PatiroShine Pintor SiolembaConceptualizationFormal AnalysisMethodologyWriting – Original Draft Preparationhttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-7912-47241HendartoKresno AgusConceptualizationFormal AnalysisMethodologyhttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-6808-1500a2HidayatDian CharityWriting – Original Draft PreparationWriting – Review & Editingb2WibowoLukas RumbokoConceptualizationData CurationInvestigation2RaceDigbySupervisionWriting – Review & Editing3SusilaI Wayan WidhanaData CurationWriting – Original Draft Preparation2SutrihadiSutrihadiSoftwareVisualization4SugiyantoKrisdiantoFunding AcquisitionWriting – Review & Editing4NjurumanaGerson NdawaResourcesWriting – Review & Editing2Sitti NuroniahHaniValidationWriting – Review & Editing2KurniasariDewi RatnaProject Administration2ParmonoV. RachmadiValidation5PutriAtfi IndrianySoftwareVisualization6AbdurakhmanAbdurakhmanMethodologyValidation6WisudayatiTri AstutiWriting – Original Draft PreparationWriting – Review & Editing2RamawatiRamawatiWriting – Original Draft Preparation2PratamaYudha Satria AjiWriting – Original Draft PreparationWriting – Review & Editinghttps://orcid.org/0000-0002-7711-88897
Indonesia Open University, Jakarta, Indonesia
National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia, Indonesia
The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji
Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Jakarta, Indonesia
Atma Jaya Catholic University, Jakarta, Indonesia
Gadjah Mada University, Sleman, Indonesia
Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, Surabaya, Indonesiakresnoah@yahoo.comdian077@brin.go.id
The COVID-19 pandemic has generated significant impacts on the forestry sector. Employment layoffs have led to an increase in return migration, resulting in additional labor supply and heightened family economic burdens. This research employs the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework to examine and predict sustainable forest management practices among families managing customary forests and village forests in Bali.
Methods
Purposive sampling was used to collect data from 71 managers of customary forests and village forests in Tenganan and Wanagiri. Partial least square-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze the acquired data.
Results
The findings demonstrated that TPB can explain the sustainable forest management. The incorporation of an additional construct,
Tri Hita Karana (THK), enhanced the model’s predictive power for both managerial intentions and behaviors in sustainable forest management. Specifically,
THK influences management intentions through the mediation of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.
Conclusions
This study established that
THK, a fundamental value system in Balinese society, serves as an antecedent predictor of behavioral intentions toward sustainable forest management. The relationship between
THK and sustainable forest management intentions is mediated by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. This research makes significant theoretical and managerial contributions. First, it validates the established TPB framework within the context of COVID-19’s impact in Bali. Additionally, it provides scholars with insights for identifying other potential constructs that may influence forest land managers’ behavior.
Theory of planned behavior”COVID-19“return migrants”“sustainable forest management”“Tri Hita Karana” ARSF3-ECR Project Plan, Project Code 002-Lukas Wibowo-IndonesiaARSF3-ECR Project Plan, Project Code 002-Lukas Wibowo-Indonesia. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.Amendments from Version 2
First, for the title: we have changed it to: An extended Theory of Planned Behavior in explaining intention toward sustainable forest management: Evidence from COVID 19 Pandemic from Bali, Indonesia. Second, for the introduction: to make our review broader we have added articles from Utomo et al (2022) and Njurumana et al (2025). We have added an explanation of migrants, consistent used of the terminology migrant-receiving family, consistent used of the word "aim" for research purposes, and we changed all percentages to be one decimal place.. Third, for the method: we have clarified the data collected, and added the definition of customary forest and village forest according to regulations in Indonesia Fourth, for the results and discussion: we have added relevant COVID-19 cases in Indonesia (Widhanarto et al 2024), the reason why in our discussion we focus on the theory of planned behaviour, and added a description of social forestry in the research location according to the study conducted by Wong et al (2020), De Royer et al (2018), Gilmour et al (2016). Fifth, for grammar style, we have sent it to proofreading at Yogyakarta State University using and using Grammarly. For this, we added the sentence "To improve the wording and readability of this study, the authors used Grammarly" in the ethical consideration section.
Introduction
At the end of 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) for the first time recognized a COVID-19 case in China and deemed it as a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. “Over the past two weeks, the number of cases outside China has increased 13-fold, and the number of affected countries has increased 3-fold,” said WHO Secretary-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (
Dzulfaroh 2021).
To limit the spread of COVID-19, all governments globally took drastic measures by locking down entire countries or most affected cities and towns and banning outsiders from entering their countries (
Fotiadis et al. 2021). As a result, patterns of social, economic, and human behavior alter quickly and dramatically (
Cooke et al. 2021). This behavior change has resulted in reduced greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, noise pollution, and waste which makes beaches in different countries cleaner (
Ming et al. 2020;
Bao and Zhang 2020;
Dantas et al. 2020;
Maji et al. 2021;
El-Sayed et al. 2021;
Rahman et al. 2021). However, it has also resulted in weakly enforced regulations and environmental law handling (
Corlett et al. 2020). Comparing the same period in 2019 to all tropical areas, deforestation increased by 63% to 136% (
Brancalion et al. 2020). In Gundaki Province, Nepal, COVID-19 has suspended all types of forestry and ecotourism-based businesses, research, and monitoring activities. It has also led to a drastic increase in illegal logging and poaching both inside and outside protected areas, a significant reduction in the income of the middle and lower classes, and an increase in rural and urban poverty (
Laudari et al. 2021). Besides that, extensive protective measures such as mask and glove use have increased organic and inorganic waste in the environment (
Zambrano-Monserrate et al. 2020).
In Indonesia, President Joko Widodo and Minister of Health Terawan announced the Covid 19 case at a press conference at the Presidential Palace on March 2, 2020. Two patients with Covid 19 were confirmed. Patient 1 is a 31-year-old woman while Patient 2 was a 64-year-old woman. They are a mother and daughter who live in one house in Depok, West Java. Even though at the beginning of the pandemic the Government received much criticism from the public, on May 25, 2022, at the 7th Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction 2022 in Bali, Indonesia was highly appreciated by the President of the UN General Assembly, Abdulla Shahid, in his remarks at the event (
BNPB 2022).
Tourism is the backbone of Bali’s economy. When the COVID-19 pandemic struck, its impact was significant. In the Bali Economic and Investment Forum on April 8, 2021, the Head of the Bali Tourism Office stated, “Three thousand employees were laid off and consequently increased the unemployment in Bali. While usually, it has the lowest rate nationally, it is now in 18th position” (
CNN 2021). The open unemployment rate in February 2020 was 1.3%, which increased to 5.4% in February 2021 and fell slightly to 5.3% in February 2022. The poverty rate increased, in March 2020 it was 165.19 (3.8%) while in March 2021, it was 201.97 (4.5%) (
BPS 2022). Like in other countries the laid-off employees generally returned to their hometowns and were involved in work.
Previous researchers (i.e.,
Pramana et al. 2022;
Khalid et al. 2021;
Zenker and Kock 2020;
Higgins-Desbiolles 2020;
Guridno and Guridno 2020;
Baum and Hai 2020;
Qiu et al. 2020;
Nicola et al. 2020;
Foo et al. 2021;
Qiu et al. 2021;
Škare et al. 2021;
Abbas et al. 2021;
Zhang et al. 2021;
Fotiadis et al. 2021;
Bae and Chang 2021) have studied the COVID-19 pandemic and the impact on tourism. Using web-based bibliometric analysis (biblioshiny) on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the forestry sector,
Jayasundara et al. (2024) identified that “deforestation” appears most frequently. Subsequently, “conservation”, “management”, “urban”, “recreation”, “wildlife”, “market”, “product”, “climate change”, “ecosystem services” come next. Interestingly, there has been an increase in forest recreation (especially urban forests) in such developed countries as America (
Grima et al. 2020;
Ferguson et al. 2022), Japan (
Yamazaki et al. 2021), Germany (
da Schio et al. 2021). Urban forests have been favored because of they are close to their homes. In addition to urban forests, undeveloped forests (wilderness areas) are other favorite destinations since the exercise of social distancing regulations. Therefore, they visit isolated tourist locations with only few visitors. On the other hand, the number of retiree visitors (who are older), international visitors, and those from distant locations has decreased. Likewise, the intensity of activities forest conservation and management has decreased because in general the government has allocated the budget mostly to deal with COVID-19. In other words, the budget for conservation and forest management activities has been cut significantly. Consequently, such illegal activities as deforestation, land encroachment, and poaching have increased (
Brancalion et al. 2020). With the transit point in Bangladesh,
Rahman et al. (2021) revealed that, hunting and trade of wild animals has increased in India, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand and China. The people whose lives depend on forests face serious challenges. The restrictions imposed has resulted in income decline. For instance, in Indonesia, limited accessibility has resulted in the decline in honey harvest and income (
Njurumana et al. 2021). The decline in demand for agroforestry products has consequently resulted in reduced income (
Pieter et al. 2022). During COVID-19, bamboo craftsmen in Gunung Kidul Yogyakarta have earned up to 23.5% lower income. Consequently, they do such other jobs as farming, hunting, and selling food (
Utomo et al. 2022). Likewise, a systematic evaluation using 62 indicators has revealed that COVID 19 has caused a significant decrease in production marketing, income, and social interaction for forest farmers in Sikka, East Nusa Tenggara (
Njurumana et al. 2025). The decline of ecotourism due to the decreased number of distant and international visitors has decreased the income of the communities around ecotourism locations (
Kalema-zikusoka 2021;
Rahaman et al. 2021). Furthermore, research on forest cover showed that during the pandemic tropical forest cover on small inhabited islands has declined. For example, forest cover on Mansinam Island decreased by 4.3%, wasteland increased by 80.6%, agricultural land increased by 75.3%, and shrubs increased by 54.9%. Another finding is that 78.9% of total deforestation has resulted from forest conversion to wasteland and agricultural land (
Hematang et al., 2025).
Reviewing these literatures, we found that significant gap, especially on migrant-receiving family (1) most of the studies were based on assumptions (valid for scenario analysis) and generally, they used secondary data or online survey, instead of the actual data taken in the field; (2) most of these studies did not focus on migrants affected by layoffs and acceptance of the hometown of the returning migrants; and (3) families of migrant workers who have been laid off were affected by both internal factor (biological, psychological, and social) and external factor (assistance from the central and local governments).
This study aims to fill that gap.
First, this study focuses on the hometown of the migrants by focusing on the behavior of migrant-receiving families (especially managers of customary forests land and village forests).
Second, this study gathers field data. This study collects information directly from the source to ensure more authentic and representative insights, which can objectively reveal real-world phenomena and capture the possibly overlooked complexities that are relevant to the study questions or hypotheses.
Third, this study examines internal factors using Theory of planned behavior (TPB) to understand behavior of migrant receiving families.
Gao et al. (2017) stated that although TPB has been widely used in predicting individual pro-environmental behavior, there are 2 limitations. The limitation is that TPB is a theory of self-interest and all variables in TPB are rational predictors (
Bertoldo and Castro 2016). In other words, TPB assumes that human behavior is simple, so that people make decisions using rational thinking; in fact human behavior is very complex (
Ajzen 1991;
Petty and Cacioppo 1986). Thus, to enhance the ability of TPB in explaining and predicting intentions and pro-environmental behavior, it is necessary to consider additional variables for inclusion in the model (
Conner and Armitage 1998). This study has expanded the TPB framework by including
THK (as a value) construct to measure the impact on the behavior of customary forest and village forest managers.
TPB is the most frequently cited theory to explain human behavior (
Sussman and Gifford 2019). Numerous empirical studies have examined and validated this theory, which has been found to be an effective explanation for a range of pro-environmental behaviors (
Sarkis 2017;
Du and Pan 2021). This theory is a development of the theory of reasoned action and was first proposed by Icek Ajzen in 1985. This theory states that human behavior is guided by 3 kinds of considerations, namely behavioral belief, normative belief, and control belief, which in turn produce specific outcomes such as attitudes toward behavior, subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) (
Yadav and Pathak 2017).
Values influence behavior when they are relevant to the context and important to the individual (
Schwartz 1992). Individuals hold a relatively stable set of values that are internalized from early life stages and change little thereafter (
Schwartz 1994). In other words, values are used to characterize cultural groups, societies, and individuals, to explain the motivational basis of attitudes and behavior (
Schwartz 2012). Schwartz’s approach is crucial for social-psychological studies for various reasons. First, it directly deals with theory, and its fundamental components are incorporated into early social scientific research (
Desender et al. 2011;
Ahmad et al. 2020). Second, the framework utilizes value dimensions measurements that are consistent across cultures (
Burgess and Steenkamp 2006;
Schwartz 2006;
Ahmad et al. 2020).
Stern et al. (1993) proposed three value orientations that were pertinent to consumers’ environmental concerns as an early application of Schwartz’s value theory: self-interest, altruism toward other humans, and altruism toward other species and the biosphere. Later,
Stern and Dietz (1994) asserted that a person’s perspective about themselves (egoistic value orientation), other people (altruistic value orientation), or plants and animals (biospheric value orientation) will determine how important they view environmental issues.
The term
THK derives from the words “Tri” which means three, “Hita” which means happiness. and “Karana” which means cause. Therefore, lexically the term means three causes of happiness creation (
Yhani and Supastri 2020). Some examples of the implementing of our gratitude to God include (1) with
sradha (belief or trust) and
bhakti (activity of getting closer to God) giving
yadnya (divine service) and praying to God. Doing
Punia (offerings) without any strings attached, doing
tirtta yatra (holy journey) to places that can lead to their sacred values; (2) Caring for others, especially to a relative (fellow) hit by a disaster. As role model that illuminates others, at least we must be a torch for ourselves first by diligently talking about virtue while taking real action; (3) The natural surroundings or our environment is our closest mirror of caring for nature. The environment looks beautiful, clean, and neatly arranged, which means that we can realize one of the
THK. In the Bhagawadgita it is said that “
Satatam kirtayatom mam. Yatantas ca drsha vrtatah. Namasyantas ca mam bhatya. Ni tyayuktah upsate” (IX.14) (Always exclusively praise Me and do the duty of service uninterruptedly. You who worship me unceasingly and with eternal devotion are close to Me) (
Budiastika 2022).
Thus, the aim of this study is to improve understanding of the behavior of the migrant-receiving families. The word migrants in this study exclusively refers to return-migrant, namely those who inevitable return to their hometowns as a result of layoffs due to COVID-19. In other words, this study aims to investigate of the insignificant impact of COVID-19 pandemic-related damage on the management of customary forests and village forests in Bali. This study proposes two questions. They are (1) what internal factors significantly influence the behavior of customary/village forest managers; and (2) how these factors shape the behavior of the managers of customary forests and/or village forests.
This article illustrates the process as follows. The second section describes context, sample, measurement, and analysis of data. We present results and discussion in the third section. Finally, the fourth section presents conclusions, limitations, and suggestions.
MethodsContext
The study was conducted in two villages, namely Tenganan Village and Wanagiri Village. The two villages were chosen because (1) Tenganan Village has customary forests and Wanagiri Village has village forests; (2) each customary forest and village forest manager has joined a forest farmer group that was formed before the COVID-19 pandemic; (3) there were no extreme land cover changes during the COVID-19 pandemic (see
Figure 1).
Study area, Village forest and Customary Forest land cover.
Note: Bali Island (A) (Source:
BPS, 2023); Village forest land cover in Wanagiri 2018 (B1), 2020 (B2), and 2022 (B3); Customary forest land cover in Tenganan 2018 (C1), 2020 (C2), and 2022 (C3).
Tenganan Village is located in Manggis District, Karangasem Regency. The population is 1,044 people. The people of Tenganan Village are an early Hindu community (Bali Aga) with the Indra sect. They do not recognize caste systems like those found among Balinese people in general. Based on Decree number 1546/MenLHK-PSKL/PKTH/Kum.1/2/2019, the Minister of Environment and Forestry (MoEF) designated the forest in Tenganan as a customary forest. The Regulation of the MoEF Number 9 of 2021 concerning social forestry management stated that customary forests are located within the territory of customary law communities. Customary areas refer to lands and/or waters along with the natural resources thereon, that have certain boundaries, and are owned, utilized preserved, and sustained from generation to generation to meet the needs of the community. The customary lands or forests are inherited from ancestors or acquired through the claim of ownership. The area of the Tenganan customary forest extends approximately 591 hectares consisting of 226 hectares of protected forests and 365 hectares of productive forests. The Tenganan customary forest is managed by all indigenous peoples, numbering around 668 people or 225 families. All residents are Hindus (
BPS 2020). They are guided by customary rules (
awig-awig
) in managing customary forests.
Wanagiri Village is situated in Sukasada District, Buleleng Regency. It has village forest that managed by a Village-Owned Enterprise named “Eka Giri Karya Utama”. With a total of 250 hectares, this village forest is divided into 2 zones of 80 hectare of protection zone and 170 hectare of utilization zone. The village forest was designated with the Decree of the Governor of Bali Number 2017/03-L/HK/2005. The Village forest is a forest areas that have not been burdened with permits. The village forests are customarily managed and utilized by the village for the welfare of the village, village areas, or areas resulting from management boundary agreements between adjacent villages. The community maps them in a participatory manner, and/or located within a single natural landscape in the village. Most of the village forests have been planted with coffee. The total population in the village of Wanagiri is 4,056 people; 51.6% of which are men and 48.4% are women. Religion of the population are Hindus (98.9%); Islam (0.7%); Christian (0.2%); Catholic (0.1%); and Budhis (0.1%) (
Sistem_Informasi_Desa, 2023). There are 296 families involved in village forest management. This number is divided into three forest farmer groups, namely Wana Amerta (with 78 families); Puncak Manik (35 families); and Jagra Wana (78 families).
In order to protect the public’s health during the COVID 19 epidemic, the government imposed travel restrictions, promoted the 3M campaigns (Memakai masker, Mencuci tangan, dan Menjaga jarak/mask use, hand washing, and maintaining social distancing), and administered vaccinations. In addition, the government also ensured the digitalization of health care. When a positive case of COVID-19 is suspected, medicine is immediately sent free of charge. Not all countries allow free transport of medically prescribed medicine.
From an economic standpoint, the Government implemented a partial lockdown or locally known as Large-Scale social restriction (PSBB). This is quite rational because people can still carry out economic activities. The enforced PSBB in these areas is considered far more realistic than implementing a complete lockdown national wide (
Roziqin et al. 2021). In addition, the government also provides a social safety net. There are several social policies which include Family Hope Program, Staple Food Cards, Pre-Employment Cards, electricity subsidies, additional market and logistics operations, relief of credit payments for informal workers, and BLT Dana Desa (direct cash assistance to the village) (for more details, see
Figure 2).
Framework return migrants and forest relations in the pandemic.
Note:
Figure 2 modified from
Bista et al. (2022).
Operationally, the research question of this study can be illustrated in
Figure 3.
Planned Behavior Theory, Tri Hita Karana, Proposed model and hypotheses.
Note: Planned Behavior Theory (A). Source:
Yuriev et al. (2020); Tri Hita Karana (B). Source:
Adityanandana and Gerber (2019).
As seen in
Figure 3(A), attitudes, SN, and PBC are the predictors of intention. Consequently, this study examines three hypotheses derived from the conceptual model:
H
1:
Attitudes have a positive effect on the intention to manage forest sustainably
H
2:
Subjective norm has a positive effect on the intention to manage forest sustainably
H
3:
Perceived behavioral control has a positive effect on the intention to manage village and/or customary forest sustainably
Figure 3(B) illustrates that
THK represents a harmonious integration of 3 related realms, namely the human world (
pawongan), the natural world (
palemahan), and the spiritual world (
parahyangan). The self (microcosm) is not separate from the universe (macro cosmos) and both are composed of the same elements (
Adityanandana and Gerber 2019).
The framing of
THK as “culture”, “tradition”, and “local wisdom” can be criticized by using insights from various scientific domains (
Roth and Sedana 2015). In this study, we frame
THK as a value. Value is a belief that is closely related to influence. When values are activated, they are infused with feelings (
Schwartz 2012). He also gives an example of people who consider independence an important value. People become aroused when their independence is threatened. They may feel despair when they are powerless to protect it and feel happy when they can enjoy it. Thus, the hypothesis proposed is:
H
4:
THK has a positive effect on attitudes towards sustainable forest management
H
5:
THK has a positive effect on subjunctive norms
H
6:
THK has a positive effect on perceived behavioral control
Finally,
Figure 3(C) shows the model proposed by this study, where value (THK) is an antecedent of TPB.
Sample
Purposive sampling was used in this study. According to
Cooper and Schindler (2013), purposive sampling is a non-probabilistic sampling that meets specific criteria. Following of the study objectives, the specific criteria are people who: (1) cultivators of customary forests and village forests; (2) adults; (3) have a good literacy level; (4) responsible for the laid-off immigrants due to the COVID-19 pandemic; and (5) willing to be involved in the study.
The sample size for a multivariate analysis should be 10 times more than the total number of variables to be examined, according to Roscoe in
Sekaran and Bougie (2016). Depending on the complexity of the model, a sample size of 5 or 10 or 15 cases per parameter (
Kline 2016). Meanwhile, the number of representative samples used in multivariate analysis was between 100 and 200, or five times as many as the questionnaire’s question items (
Hair et al. 2018). Based on what has been stated and also because not all managers of customary forests and/or village forests accept migrants, we targeted a sample size of 200 respondents.
Measurement
In this study, structured questionnaires were used. The questionnaire consisted of two major parts, namely: (1) inquires about
THK, attitudes, SN, PBC, and intention to continue to manage forest sustainably; and (2) inquires about the respondent’s profile. The question items were modified from earlier studies by
Ariyanto et al. (2017);
Homer (1995);
Ofoegbu and Speranza (2017);
Buyinza et al. (2020);
Borges and Lansink (2016). Because the question items are translated from English to Indonesian, the accuracy of the translation matter (
Jogiyato 2013). Therefore, we asked linguists at Yogyakarta State University to translate the question items from English into Indonesian. The translated Indonesian version was translated back into English by the author’s colleagues who had studied abroad to identify any significant differences.
Data analysis
The data in this study were analyzed using SEM. There are two SEM methods: covariance-based (CB-SEM) and variant-based (PLS-SEM). When deciding which one to be utilized, it’s critical to be aware of the differences between the two (
Hair Jr. et al. 2017). CB-SEM aims to “minimize the differences between sample covariance matrix estimates, while PLS-SEM maximize the explained variance of endogenous constructs” (
Hair et al. 2011). Therefore, CB-SEM is mainly used for the confirmation of established theories (explanations); in contrast, PLS-SEM is a prediction-oriented approach, primarily undertaken for exploratory research (
Sarstedt et al. 2014).
Almost all studies using PLS-SEM state that PLS-SEM has advantages over CB-SEM. It can complete formative and reflective measurements. Another advantage is that the samples are not necessarily large. Besides that, it assumes that the samples are not necessarily normally distributed (
Hair et al. 2014;
Henseler et al. 2009). Because one of the aims of this study is to predict whether
THK is an antecedent of attitude, SN, and PBC, this study uses PLS-SEM.
Although PLS_SEM has some advantages, it also has disadvantages. PLS-SEM does not have a Goodness-of-Fit (GoF) index. The geometric mean of the communal mean and average R2 can be used as general criteria for GoF (
Tenenhaus et al. 2005). The criteria for small, medium, and large effects of GoF are 0.1, 0.25, and 0.36 (
Wetzels et al. 2009).
ResultsProfile of respondent
The respondents were surveyed using a self-administered questionnaire. To filter respondents to fit the criteria, we used filter/screening questions. The questions asked whether, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the respondents accepted the laid-off family members. Screener questions were intended to avoid respondents from answering irrelevant questions.
Of the 200 questionnaires distributed, 71 respondents completed them (met the criteria sample and pass the screener question). Therefore 71 questionnaires were analyzed. Of the 71 data analyzed, the respondents were born and raised in the villages of Wanagiri and Tengganan (97.2%) while the rest were not born in the location and live in the villages of Wanagiri and Tengganan due to marriage (2.8%).
Table 1 contains information about the respondent’s profile.
Respondent’s demographic profile (n = 71).
Gender
Monthly expenses
Male
78.90
≤ Rp 1.000.000
12.70
Female
21.10
Rp. 1.000.001 – Rp. 2.500.000
64.80
> Rp. 2.500.000
22.50
Age
Occupation
< 21
2.80
Farmer
59.20
21-30
8.50
Village officials
8.50
31-40
22.50
Trader
11.30
41-50
35.20
Other
21.10
> 50
31.00
Education
Family members
Elementary School
35.20
< 2
15.5
Junior High School
19.70
2-4
63.4
Senior High School
25.40
> 4
21.1
Academy
19.70
Measurement model
A self-administered version of the questionnaire was intended. When employing self-administered questionnaires, researchers encounter challenges since respondents’ answers are more impacted by the clarity of the written words than by the interviewer’s abilities (
Zikmund and Babin 2016). Thus, the initial step was to carry out a pilot test after the questionnaire had been compiled. The objectives of the pilot test are to identify: (1) whether there are ambiguous words; (2) whether the instructions given can be understood; (3) whether it is difficult for the respondent to answer; and (4) how long the respondent took the time to fill out the questionnaires. A tiny sample size of three respondents participated in this pilot test. The questionnaires were promptly duplicated and distributed to the respondents after revisions were made in response to the pilot test’s findings.
The criteria for convergent validity, according to
Fornell and Larcker (1981), are that: (1) the factor loading is significant and higher than 0.7; and (2) the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) value is higher than 0.5; whereas for discriminant validity, the AVE value exceeds the squared correlation value between the construct pairs (
Table 3). The composite reliability value is used to evaluate reliability. The cutoff criterion for Composite Reliability is 0.7 (
Abdillah and Jogiyanto 2015; Nunnaly in
Onofrei et al. 2022).
Table 2 shows that all variables passed the convergent validity test with an AVE value greater than 0.5. Additionally, it has passed the test for discriminant validity, which establishes that each indicator in a latent variable differs from indicators in other latent variables (as shown by a higher loading score in its construct). All variables pass the construct reliability test, as evidenced by the reliability testing results (each variable’s composite reliability is more than 0.7).
Convergent validity and reliability testing.
Constructs
Item loading
AVE
Composite reliability
Tri Hita Karana (
Ariyanto et al. 2017)
0.690
0.917
Sincerity and prayer will expedite my process of utilizing forest land
0.766
Believing in the law of karma phala will lead me to the forest land utilization
0.854
Village (customary) leaders care for forest land utilization
0.851
Collective effort and responsibilities of village (customary) residents and leaders ensure the wise utilization of the forest
0.783
Forest land utilization provides learning opportunities and enables anticipation of upcoming changes
0.894
Attitude toward SFM (
Homer 1995)
0.851
0.945
Sustainable management of customary/village forests to reduce the economic burden after the pandemic is:
Very Unwise – Very Wise
0.941
Negative- Positive
0.857
Very Poor – Very Good
0.966
Subjective Norm (
Ofoegbu and Speranza 2017)
0.679
0.863
Village and/or customary officials will support the sustainable management of customary forests/village forests
0.761
Other people with whom I interact regularly will perceive the desirability of involvement in the sustainable management of customary village forests
0.835
I appreciate other people's significant opinions regarding my involvement in the sustainable management of customary/village forests
0.872
Perceived Behavioral Control (
Buyinza et al. 2020)
0.693
0.871
I believe I am knowledgeable enough about sustainable customary/village forest management
0.759
I have all the necessary labor and knowledge resources to manage village and/or customary forests sustainably
0.874
When I want to plan sustainable customary/village forest management, I have sufficient technical skills
0.860
Intention toward SFM (
Borges and Lansink 2016)
0.862
0.926
I intent to get alternative income from sustainable customary/village forests management in the next year?
0.898
How serious are you in the customary/village forests management in the next year?
0.921
Discriminant validity testing.
Attitude toward SFM
Intention toward SFM
PBC
Subjective norm
Tri Hita Karana
Attitude toward SFM
(0.922)
Intention toward SFM
0.401
(0.928)
PBC
0.233
0.428
(0.832)
Subjective Norm
0.470
0.471
0.365
(0.824)
Tri Hita Karana
0.292
0.352
0.372
0.312
(0.831)
Note: The values in brackets are the square root of AVE.
Structural model, hypothesis testing and goodness of fit
Following the measurement model, SEM was used to investigate each hypothesis contained within the suggested model. This two-step analytic strategy is consistent with
Anderson and Gerbing (1988). The results can be seen in
Table 4.
Structural model and hypotheses testing.
Hypotheses
Path Coefficient
t-value
Supported?
H
1
Attitude → intention
0.112
2.063
Yes
H
2
Subjective norm → intention
0.130
2.539
Yes
H
3
Perceived behavioral control → intention
0.111
3.292
Yes
H
4
Tri Hita Karana → atiitude
0.121
3.471
Yes
H
5
Tri Hita Karana → subjective norm
0.148
3.029
Yes
H
6
Tri Hita Karana → perceived behavioral control
0.092
5.841
Yes
Table 4 shows that all hypotheses are supported by data with a t value greater than the t table; while the relationship between variables shows unilateral results (all path values have positive coefficients).
After testing the hypothesis, we calculate the GoF value. If a model does not fit the data, then the data contains more information than the model conveys. Therefore, the prediction is not significant, and the conclusion may be debatable (
Henseler et al. 2016). The GoF value in this study is 0.685, which is higher than the large GoF value. Therefore, the proposed model is consistent with the data, and the model tested is parsimonious and reasonable.
Discussion
Social forestry often fails to provide full rights to local communities, especially in the context of customary rights and formal recognition (
Wong et al. 2020). This is particularly true because participation is limited to village elites and technical support is almost non-existent. In other words, the main obstacles include bureaucratic processes and local actor exclusion (
Royer et al. 2018). However, Decree number 1546/MenLHK-PSKL/PKTHA/Kum.1/2/2019 of the Minister of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) that determined the forest in Tenganan as a customary forest; Decree of the Governor of Bali Number 2017/03-L/HK/2005 that determined it as a Village Forest in Wanagiri; and Decree of the Governor of Bali Number 2017/03-L/HK/2015 as well as Decree of the Buleleng Regent Number 430/405/HK/2017 concerning the Management of Tourism Villages in Wanagiri, have reduced some of these detrimental factors. This aligns with social forestry’s key success factors (
Gilmour 2016): secure tenure rights, supportive regulation, strong governance, market access, and bureaucratic support.
The residents of Wanagiri Village have established a tourism awareness group as a part of the village-owned enterprise (BUMDes). Their income is derived from managing local natural tourist attractions such as Banyumala Waterfall, Puncak Manik Waterfall, and Buana Sari Waterfall, as well as providing tour guides (
Laksemi et al. 2019). Local entrepreneurship practices in Wanagiri Village are organized by the BUMDes “Eka Giri Karya Utama”. The economic programs include savings and loans, tourism, coffee processing, waste management, and water management. They also developed LPD (Village Credit Institution) a village-level credit institution to provide financial access.
Likewise, the residents of Tenganan Village maintain the customary system and local wisdom in forest management. The community applies awig-awig to maintain and sustain the forest, even before receiving formal recognition from the government. These awig-awig are customary regulations that contain recommendations and prohibitions (for example, the prohibition of cutting down trees and changing the function of forest land without permission from the Traditional Village). The highly obedient community reflects the effectiveness of the awig-awig. Most resident whose lives are highly dependent on the sale of commodities, especially palm leaf crafts, Gringsing cloth (whose materials are collected from customary forests) stated that the tourism industry in Tenganan Village is very important and needs to be continuously developed. However, some indigenous people perceive tourism development as a mere bonus of the strengthening of local culture.
The two cases showed that SF in Wanagiri is more proactive in articulating ideas and social participation in village deliberation forums, while SF in Tenganan has provided full rights to the local community.
When the COVID-19 pandemic first occurred in Italy, demand for wood contracted. The international market (export-import) of wood products experienced a sharp decline (
Barcaccia et al. 2020). Likewise in China, the price of natural resource commodities is volatile and short termed due to the disrupted supply and demand chains resulting from the increase in active cases and the spike in deaths of COVID-19 patients (
Guo et al. 2022). For the case in Indonesia, there was a decrease in income in the wood processing industry business in Labe Lawe, Sekadau Hilir Regency, West Kalimantan, from previously IDR 492,927,000 before the Covid-19 pandemic and IDR 345,583,000 during the Covid-19 pandemic. It implies an income discrepancy of IDR 147,344,000 or a decrease of up to 30.0% (
Widhanarto et al. 2024). By comparing the impact of COVID-19 to that of previous economic crises (
Wunder et al. 2021), found that national income and commodity prices are affected by 3 factors, namely: contractionary-inflationary supply-side shocks, deflationary demand-side impacts, and expansionary-inflationary government policy responses (both monetary and fiscal). In the US, the COVID-19 pandemic caused a significant shift in the demand function, while the supply function shifted inward due to labor shortages. The lumber price in the US increased from $319.70 per thousand board feet (mbf) in April 2020 due to the appearing sign of pandemic resolution. It reached the peak of $1500.50/mbf exactly one year later (
van Kooten and Schmitz 2022).
Literatures reveales that deforestation (pressure on forests) has resulted from the increased conversion of forest land when compared to the desire to control the trees (
Kaimowitz and Angelsen 1998;
Angelsen and Kaimowitz 1999). In general, this conversion aims at opening up land for industry, settlements, plantations, agriculture, mining and others. When the COVID-19 pandemic occurred, this pressure increased with layoffs and return migration. When layoffs hit, they generally return to their hometowns to seek new opportunities, find temporary housing, and/or look for emotional and social support. On the other hand, their hometowns offer very few formal employment opportunities that match the skills of the return migrants. Reduced or without income will force the return-migrant to turn to natural (agricultural) resources for survival. This will subsequently put pressure on the existing agricultural land, which in turn will encourage return-migrant to engage in activities that exploit natural resources including forests.
The results of this study differ from the findings of research conducted by
Yazdanpanah et al. (2014) who examined water conservation-related behavior intentions across the Middle East and North Africa;
Knussen et al. (2004) who examined intention to recycle household waste in Glasgow, Scotland;
Ofoegbu and Speranza (2017) who examine at South Africa’s intention to adopt practical management and sustainable forest usage; where the three reported that at least one of the 3 predictors of behavioral intention in TPB (Attitude, SN and PBC) did not have a significant effect. Accordingly, the results of this study confirmed that the 3 predictors had a positive and significant effect. The findings of this study are consistent with the study conducted by
Ajzen (2011) who states that ideally, the 3 predictors have a positive and significant statistical effect;
Borges and Lansink (2016) who predicted cattle ranchers’ intentions in Brazil to adopt better natural pastures.
This study used the TPB model to understand, explain, and predict the behavior of families who receive the arrival of migrants in their areas. It identifies the reason for their willingness to cultivate forests sustainably. This study model includes the
THK construct into the TPB model to understand, explain, and predict the behavior of land cultivators due to the impact of COVID-19. When COVID-19 hit, many company workers were laid off so they returned to their hometowns, which consequently more or less put pressure on the families who received their return.
The TPB model developed in this study shows that social psychological factors (attitudes, SN, and PBC) can explain and predict the intentions and behavior of forest managers. The
THK variable included in the TPB model can explain and predict attitudes, SN, and PBC positively and significantly. Adopted values are defined as ideals and guiding principles in human life (
Rokeach 1973;
Schwartz 1992). Likewise with
THK are the values adhered to by the Balinese Hindu community and become the basis for displaying behavior.
Attitudes have a strong impact on people’s perceptions toward the attitude object and thus have an impact on behavior (
Fazio 1986). Attitudes can be positive or negative and contain moral beliefs, namely individual beliefs that something is moral or immoral (
Eagly and Chaiken 1993;
Krosnick and Petty 1995;
Skitka et al. 2005). Attitudes have a strong influence on the way humans perceive and understand the world (
Fazio 2000;
Maio et al. 2019).
Because values are guiding principles and they are considered to guide our behavior (
Sagiv and Roccas 2017) through a series of variables including attitudes (
Homer and Kahle 1988), then, the values espoused will influence human feelings towards certain objects or people, which in turn will influence action (
Thorne et al. 2020). In this study, the values of
THK adhered to by migrant-receiving families can shape their attitudes toward sustainable forest management. They adhere to the values of
THK principles that produce positive manifestations reflected in the continuous management forests sustainably even though they have migrants arriving.
Furthermore, espoused values may vary between individuals depending on their personality, needs, and circumstances (
Sheth et al. 1991). Adhered values are felt by individuals and can be shaped and influenced by others as many research results show that individuals are influenced by friends, relatives, co-workers, business partners, or other parties around them (
Paul et al. 2016). The results of this study indicate that the perception of migrant-arriving families to
THK values is positive. This in turn forms the SN. The family feels that the
THK values around them can influence their perception of SN. In this case, the reference group agrees or advises them to continuously carry out sustainable forest management. In other words, the reference group also adheres to
THK values and may also sustainably manage forests.
PBC refers to a person’s beliefs about how easy or difficult or possible or impossible it is to perform a particular behavior (
Ajzen 1991). Many previous studies often used PBC as an antecedent of various behaviors related to environmental sustainability (
Fishbein and Ajzen 2010;
Yuriev et al. 2020). PBC contains belief power which is an individual’s belief in the existence of factors that support him to behave. This belief is a consequence of the values held by the individual. The
THK values adhered to by migrant-receiving families control their behavior concerning sustainable forest management. The espoused value is an individual’s belief in the existence of factors that support him to manage forests sustainably. Thus, the espoused
THK values can influence attitudes, SN, and PBC, which in turn influence the intention of cultivating forest land sustainably.
Limitations
This study has several limitations for further research.
First, the data was collected using the cross-sectional method that captures only a specific point in time. Further research may consider the longitudinal method.
Second, the samples were collected using a non-probabilistic method which only allows the generalization of results under the same conditions and characteristics.
Third, in Government Regulation Number 23 of 2021, social forestry has five schemes namely village forests, community forests, community plantation forests, customary forests, and forestry partnerships. This study was exclusively conducted in village forests and customary forest, and future research could be conducted on other schemes of social forestry.
This study also has some practical implications for managers. Because the
THK concept can guide humans in humanizing nature by harmonizing the concepts of God and humans, by socializing, understanding, deepening, and applying the
THK concept, awareness will be created to protect nature because nature is part of human beings and God. In other words, in creating community welfare, there is an inseparable relationship between humans and God. A deeper understanding and application of this approach can be ensured by making
THK a mandatory content and subject in the primary and secondary education curriculum.
Ethical considerations
This study received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee of the Indonesia Open University (Universitas Terbuka Indonesia) following comprehensive review (Protocol Number: B/1571/UN31SPS/PT.01.05/2024, approved on April 19,2024). Due to educational background, cultural norms, and risk perception, verbally informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Participants provided explicit agreement for their response to be published in anonymized form as part of aggregate data analysis. All data collection and management procedures adhered to established ethical guidelines for human subject research. To improve the wording and readability of this study, the authors used Grammarly.
Data availability statementUnderlying data
Figshare: Dataset coding responses from Bali-THK respondents (English).xlsx,
10.6084/m9.figshare.27890262.v1 (
Patiro et al. 2024).
This file contains the following underlying data:
Dataset coding responses from Bali-THK respondents (English).xlsx
The variable in this file are: Name, Full-time job, Part-time job, Gender, Length of stay, Monthly expenditure, Age, Education, Family members, Social position, Marital status, Tri Hita Karana (5 indicators), Attitude (3 indicators), Social Norm (3 indicators), Perceived Behavioral Control (3 indicators), and Intention (2 indicators).
Data are available under the terms of the
Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 Public domain dedication).
Extended data
Figshare: Tri Hita Karana Questionnaire (Indonesia).docx,
10.6084/m9.figshare.27861828.v1 (
Patiro et al. 2024).
This file is a questionnaire in Bahasa Indonesia.
Figshare: Tri Hita Karana Questionnaire (English).docx,
10.6084/m9.figshare.27861894.v1 (
Patiro et al. 2024).
This file is a questionnaire in English.
Data are available under the terms of the
Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 Public domain dedication).
Reporting guidelines
This work did not use standard review methods, hence no reporting guidelines were applied.
Acknowledgements
We extend our sincere gratitude to the Indonesia Open University for its institutional support. We would particularly like to acknowledge Maharani Hapsari, Rahman Kurniadi, Rini Astuti, Pantja Pramudya, Budi Mulyawan, Zaenal Fuad, Ismatul Hakim, Aria Atyanto Satwiko, Rini Hanifa, Caroline Astipranatari, Putu Widiana, and Putu Suarjana for their invaluable contributions to the data collection process. Their expertise and dedication significantly enhanced the quality and scope of this research.
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Cengage;2016.10.5256/f1000research.184518.r451863Reviewer response for version 3ManandaI Gusti Putu Bagus Sasrawan1Refereehttps://orcid.org/0009-0009-4673-7853
Udayana Universty, Bali, Indonesia
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
This article examines intentions toward sustainable forest management among customary and village forest managers in Bali during the COVID-19 pandemic using an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The authors integrate
Tri Hita Karana (THK), a core Balinese value system, as a value-based antecedent influencing attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control, which in turn shape behavioral intentions. Primary data were collected from 71 forest managers in two villages using structured questionnaires, and the proposed model was tested using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The results show that all TPB components significantly predict intention, and that THK significantly influences each TPB component. The authors conclude that culturally embedded values play a critical role in shaping pro-environmental intentions, especially under crisis conditions such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Overall, the study makes a meaningful theoretical contribution by extending TPB with a culturally grounded value construct and provides relevant insights for social forestry policy and practice in Indonesia.
Clarity of Presentation and Use of Literature
Assessment: Yes
The manuscript is clearly written, well structured, and logically organized from introduction through conclusions. The research objectives are explicitly stated, and the conceptual framework is coherently developed. The authors demonstrate strong engagement with both foundational literature (e.g., Ajzen, Schwartz, Stern) and recent, relevant studies related to COVID-19, environmental behavior, and social forestry, including sources published up to 2024–2025. The revisions across versions have improved clarity, terminology consistency, and contextual depth. Citations are appropriate, comprehensive, and accurately integrated. No major issues are identified in this area.
Study Design and Technical Soundness
Assessment: Partly
Although the overall study design is appropriate for the stated aims and the use of an extended TPB framework in a culturally specific and crisis-affected context is theoretically justified, several data-related and design-related questions must be addressed through revision of the manuscript.
First, the manuscript must explicitly justify why only two villages were selected as the empirical basis for the study, given that Bali contains many forested villages actively involved in forest management. The authors need to revise the methods section to answer the following questions: Why were Tenganan and Wanagiri chosen over other villages managing customary or village forests? Are these villages intended to represent typical, exemplary, or theoretically extreme cases of forest governance in Bali? On what empirical or theoretical grounds can behavioral intentions observed in only two villages be considered informative for understanding sustainable forest management intentions in Bali more broadly? Without a clear and explicit justification, the restricted spatial scope raises concerns about selection bias and limits interpretability.
Second, the authors must revise the manuscript to explain how Tri Hita Karana operates analytically as a variable rather than as a cultural constant. Tri Hita Karana is a foundational Balinese philosophy emphasizing harmony in Parahyangan (humans–God), Pawongan (humans–humans), and Palemahan (humans–nature). Given that THK values are widely shared across Balinese society, the authors need to address the following question: What meaningful variation in THK-related values exists between respondents, villages, or forest governance systems that allows THK to explain differences in behavioral intention? Without addressing this question, it remains unclear whether the observed effects reflect genuine value-driven behavior or the influence of deeply institutionalized norms that are common across Bali.
Third, the manuscript must address whether the behavioral intentions measured are driven by THK values per se or by institutional roles and obligations associated with being a forest manager. The authors should revise the interpretation of results to answer the following question: To what extent do respondents act sustainably because of internalized THK values (spiritual, social, ecological harmony), and to what extent because of formal rules, customary law, or economic necessity during the COVID-19 period? This distinction is essential to avoid conflating cultural values with governance compliance.
Fourth, the adequacy of the final sample size of 71 respondents must be more rigorously justified within a PLS-SEM framework. While PLS-SEM can accommodate smaller samples, the authors should revise the methodology section to answer the following question: How does the achieved sample size meet accepted minimum sample size or statistical power criteria for the proposed model (for example, using inverse square root or gamma-exponential methods)? Reliance on general heuristics alone is insufficient for establishing model stability.
Fifth, the manuscript must more clearly revise its claims to address the implications of purposive, non-probability sampling. Specifically, the authors should answer the following question: How do the sampling strategy and village selection constrain the external validity of the findings, and to which types of villages or forest governance contexts can the results reasonably be applied? This revision is necessary to prevent implicit generalization beyond comparable social forestry settings.
Methods and Replicability
Assessment: Yes
The methods section provides sufficient detail to allow replication. The authors clearly describe the study context, participant criteria, measurement instruments, translation and back-translation procedures, and data analysis steps. Construct sources are properly cited, and validity and reliability assessments are reported transparently. Importantly, the authors make the full dataset, coding file, and questionnaires publicly available through Figshare under a CC0 license. This significantly enhances transparency and reproducibility and meets best practices in open science. One minor issue that does not undermine replicability but merits clarification is the pilot test, which involved only three respondents. While acceptable as a basic face-validity check, the authors should clarify that this pilot was used solely for wording and comprehension rather than psychometric validation.
Statistical Analysis and Interpretation
Assessment: Partly
The statistical analysis is largely appropriate and competently executed. The authors correctly assess convergent validity, discriminant validity, and composite reliability. Structural paths are interpreted consistently with TPB theory, and the reported results align with the stated hypotheses. However, there are two methodological points that should be addressed to strengthen rigor. First, although the authors report a Goodness-of-Fit (GoF) index, the use of GoF in PLS-SEM remains debated in the literature. The manuscript should acknowledge this limitation more explicitly and, if possible, supplement the evaluation with additional recommended indicators such as effect sizes (f²), predictive relevance (Q²), or out-of-sample prediction metrics. Second, the study interprets statistically significant paths without sufficient discussion of their relatively small effect sizes. While significance is achieved, the practical magnitude of some coefficients appears modest. The authors should briefly discuss this to avoid overstating the strength of relationships.
These revisions are analytical and interpretive rather than structural and can be addressed within the existing results section.
Availability of Source Data
Assessment: Yes
All underlying data, extended data, and instruments are openly available and clearly documented. The data availability statement is transparent, and the licensing allows full reuse. This aspect of the manuscript is exemplary and requires no changes.
Support for Conclusions
Assessment: Yes
The conclusions are well supported by the results and remain appropriately cautious. The authors do not claim direct behavioral outcomes beyond intention and clearly acknowledge the limitations related to cross-sectional design, sampling, and scope. The theoretical implications regarding value-based extensions of TPB are justified by the findings, and the practical recommendations are aligned with the cultural and institutional context studied.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Partly
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Partly
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
Reviewer Expertise:
Tourism, overtourism, behaviour
I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above.
HendartoKresno AgusPusat Riset Kependudukan, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional Republik Indonesia, Central Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Competing interests: There is no competing interest disclosed.
2132026
First, we thank the reviewer for this insightful comment. We have explained the rationale for choosing Tenganan and Wanagiri in the context section. However, in accordance with the reviewer's questions, we have revised the article. It now reads:
“The study was conducted in two villages, namely Tenganan Village and Wanagiri Village. The two villages were chosen because: 1) Both villages represent two dominant management models. The forest land in Tenganan is communally owned, which is a model of prototypically traditional customary management, while the forest land in Wanagiri Village is state-owned, which is a model of state-supported community forest management; (2) Managers of customary forests and village forests have been incorporated into forest farmer group established before the COVID-19 pandemic. Simply said, forest farmer groups in Tenganan and Wanagiri have been well-established before the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, we could observe the resilience of both institutional structures and the behavior of migrant recipient families (especially those who manage customary forest and village forest land); (3) there have been no extreme changes in land cover before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic. This condition has allowed us to ascertain the socio-managerial dynamics among managers and migrant recipients of customary forest and village forest land.”
Second, a variable, which is equally known as a concept or construct, is a symbol assigned a numerical or other value (Kerlinger, 1973). In the same book, it is stated that a variable is a property that can have different values (in research, variables must have diverse values). Furthermore, complying with this suggestion, we draw an analogy with religiosity. Religiosity is defined as having a strong belief in God or gods. According to the Indonesian Dictionary (KBBI), religiosity is devotion to religion; piety. A person's religiosity is not binary (simply whether someone is "religious" or "not religious"), but rather it is a continuum that extends from low to high degrees. Such a variation has allowed the researchers to analyze its relationship with other variables. In other words, religiosity is a measurable variable in research because it qualifies an attribute with varying values and can be operationalized through measurable dimensions. Religiosity has several measurable variable dimensions: Attachment to God, Trust-Mistrust in God, Daily Spiritual Experience, Religious Coping, Faith Maturity, Religious History (Koenig et al., 1999). Likewise, Tri Hita Karana (THK) is defined as three sources of happiness. In this study, THK refers to the level of respondents' internalization of the Human-God, Humans-Humans, and Humans-Nature dimensions. In accordance with the reviewer's questions, we have revised the article. It now reads:
“As with the general application of TPB theory, individual serves as the unit of analysis in this study. THK is defined as the level of respondent's internalization of the Human-God, Humans-Humans, and Humans-Nature dimensions, as measured with the respondent's (individual's) subjective perception. Therefore, THK has different values for different individuals. Figure 3(B) illustrates that THK represents a harmonious integration of three related realms: the human world (pawongan), the natural world (palemahan), and the spiritual world (parahyangan). The self (microcosm) is indispensable from the universe (macrocosm) and both are composed of the same elements (Adityanandana and Gerber 2019). Furthermore, Citing Flood (1997) and Agung (2005), they explained that in THK, violence against nature is self-harming. Nature is believed to be a manifestation of the Supreme Being, and accordingly, is fundamentally sacred. Nature is not a merely human-exploited object, but instead, it deserves respect, as captured in the section Svet a svataropanisad: Submit to God because God is in the fire, in the air, in the entire universe, in the plants above the trees”. The THK concept of the spiritual world is relevant to the doctrine of entelechy. This doctrine is classically outlined in Purusartha (the object of human pursuit), which consists of moral (dharma), economic (artha), sensual (kama), and spiritual (moksha) values. In spite of their whole importance, the pursuit of economic and sensual desires should not override moral values in order to achieve spiritual fulfillment (the ultimate goal—moksha). The path to moksha (or liberation from suffering, inherent in the cycle of rebirth) unfolds over several lifetimes depending on one's actions (karma) and the soul's maturity to detach itself from the physical world.”
Third, we thank the reviewer for this insightful comment. To deal with this issue, we present the history of the TPB. The TPB is an extension of the TRA (Traditional Modeling Model). TRA was developed to better understand the relationship between attitudes, intentions, and behavior (Fishbein, 1967). Some researchers have used TRA to explain and predict individual behavior. However, the results are not always satisfactory because TRA has limited power in predicting behavior beyond the individual's control. Simply stated, TRA assumes that humans have a complete volitional control over their actions. However, in reality, many such external factors as money, time, skills, or legal regulations effect human behaviors. TRA generally fails to predict the action when someone expects to do something yet lack the resources. In attempt to deal with this shortcoming, Ajzen added the variable Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC). This variable accommodates both real and perceived barriers that a person face up. PBC is a person's perception of the level of ease or difficulty to perform a particular behavior. This variable accommodates both real and perceived barriers faced by a person. PBC has two main components, namely: (1) Control Beliefs: Beliefs about the existence of factors that can facilitate or hinder the performance of a behavior (for example: availability of time, money, or skills); and (2) Perceived Power: An individual's assessment of how strongly these supporting or inhibiting factors affect their ability to act. Thus, formal rules, customary law, or economic necessity have been summarized in PBC.
Nevertheless, from the proposed model (Figure 3C), THK affects behavioral intentions through attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC. Stated in a different way, THK affects attitudes and subjective norms, which has different values across individuals. In accordance with the reviewer's questions, we have revised the article. It now read:
“This study reveals how the COVID-19 pandemic has not had a significant impact on forest management specially on Tenganan forests and Wanagiri forests in Bali. This study has presented an enhanced version of the TPB model that adds a new variable called THK to explain the behavior of migrant-receiving families in order to provide an answer to the condition. The conclusion is that THK, which is a value in Balinese society, is an antecedent predictor of behavioral intention to manage forests sustainably, mediated by attitude, SN, and PBC.
The effect of THK on behavioral intentions is mediated by subjective norms. This suggests that THK functions as a collective moral compass rather than merely an individual belief. In the Balinese context, the THK philosophy is embedded in social expectations. Therefore, individuals are socially enforced to practice sustainable forest management by maintaining harmony with their community (Pawongan) and their environment (Palemahan), as expected by their social environment.
THK significantly affects behavioral intentions through the mediation of perceived behavioral control. This suggests that THK values — particularly social cohesion found in Pawongan (formal rule, customary law, or economic necessity)—strengthen individuals' sense of independence and self-efficacy. THK has improved respondents’ sense of empowerment and perceptually reduced barriers to practice sustainable forest management, as they relied on the collective strength and traditional institutional support inherent in the THK framework.”
Fourth, we appreciate the reviewer’s emphasis on model stability. Nevertheless, the Inverse Square Root (ISV) and Exponential Gamma (EG) methods are primarily designed for research of large target population. Both ISV and EG are applied to determine the minimum sample size in research, especially in Structural Equation Modeling, where the target population is large. These methods were developed to: (1) overcome the limitations of the “10-fold rule of thumb” which often results in inaccurate sample size estimates in more complex models; and (2) ISR and EG are particularly useful in a large target population research, but require a more efficient and accurate minimum sample size estimate based on the lowest R2 value and the lowest path coefficients in the model (Kock & Hadaya, 2018). Meanwhile, the aim of this study is to gain improved understanding of the behavior of migrant-receiving families. The word "migrants" in this study exclusively refers to return migrants, namely the inevitably laid off workers due to COVID-19. This study focuses on the hometown of the migrants by focusing on the behavior of migrant-receiving families (especially managers of customary forests and village forests). The research objectives and focus above clearly defines that the target population is specific (forest management families who foster the laid-off relatives due to COVID-19). Therefore, in our opinion, ISR and EG are not relevant. However, in the article, we have searched for and written the GoF value. The benefits of the GoF value are: (1) Assessing the Predictive Ability of the Model; (2) Preventing Information Failure; and (3) Providing Legitimacy to the Model (Parsimony). In accordance with the reviewer's questions, we have revised the article. It now reads:
“Before testing the hypothesis, we calculate the Goodness-of-Fit (GoF). Overall, GoF should be the starting point for model assessment. If the model does not fit the data, then the data contains more information than the model can convey (Henseler et al. 2016). The benefits of GoF are: (1) Assessing Model Predictive Ability. The main benefit of GoF is that it is a single index to evaluate the overall quality of both measurement models and structural models (Tenenhaus et al., 2005); (2) Preventing Information Failure. GoF serves to ensure that the model does not "throw away" important information contained in the data. Lack of fitness of the model will result in debatable conclusions (Henseler et al. 2016), (3) Providing Legitimacy to the Model (Parsimony). GoF is beneficial to provide evidence the simple model can be very effective in explaining complex phenomena (Wetzels et al. 2009). The GoF value in this study is 0.685. Referring to Henseler et al.'s (2016) criteria, this value exceeds the threshold for the large category, indicating that the proposed model has high consistency with the data. Therefore, the proposed model is consistent with the data, and the tested model is parsimonious and reasonable.”
Fifth, in accordance with the reviewer's questions, we have revised the article. It now reads:
“The non-probabilistic sampling strategy is applied in this study to acknowledge several limitations to the external validity of the findings. Rather than offering universal generalizations across all social forestry models, the results of this study apply only to villages with similar socio-ecological profiles. In particular, these findings represent autonomously and traditionally managed by villages based on customary law (awig-awig), with communal land ownership, and the state-owned forests managed collaboratively by the Village Forest Management Institution and the government, namely the Ministry of Environment and Forestry.”
10.5256/f1000research.184518.r398893Reviewer response for version 3RoshetkoJames1Referee
The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Partly
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required.
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Partly
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
Reviewer Expertise:
NA
I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard.
10.5256/f1000research.181846.r386565Reviewer response for version 2RoshetkoJames1Referee
The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Bogor, West Java, Indonesia
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
The paper is interesting and contributes to the existing literature. It requires revision regarding: consistent use of terminologies; a broad review of relevant literature; and expansion of the Discussion to directly address 'sustainable management of customary and village forests' in the context of return migrants.
Specific comments/recommendations:
Title: The title should reflect the focus of the study on the effect of ‘return migrant’ on sustainable forest management.
Two sets of aims are stated in the paper, one on page 5 and another on page 6. They are not consistent. See possible edit to clarify the situation.
As stated, the second aim (page 6) is ‘to improve understanding of the behavior of migrant receivers’. What is a ‘migrant receiver’? That term is never used again. Is it the same as ‘migrant-receiving family’? Be consistent in terminology.
In the paper does the term ‘migrant’ always refer to ‘return migrant’? If yes, include a statement making that point in the Introduction (after the aim). Currently there is a lack of clarity.
Page 5. The Introduction could include a broader review of the literature, as the impact of COVID on local NRM varied. An example Utomo et al (2022) provides both support and contradiction to the current Introduction. Utomo et al. (2022) found COVID caused reduced production of bamboo crafts with a corresponding reduction of income in the bamboo craft sector. Response to that situation included an increase in the utilization of local forest resources (increased hunting and gathering) as well as an increase in farming. Citation and link here. The authors may know other relevant literature.
- Utomo MMB, et al., 2022 (Ref 1)
Page 5. Second ‘aim’ – clarify the field data collected.
Page 6. The authors should provide definitions of or distinguish the difference between 'customary forests' and 'village forests', in the context of this research.
Page 6. It would be good to include the Indonesia terminology of the 3Ms - memakai masker, mencuci tangan, menjaga jarak.
Page 7. Be consistent in use of capitalization. Throughout the paper.
Page 10. Be consistent in the use of terminology. The Introduction gives the ‘aims’ of the study. Page 10 refers to the ‘objectives’ of the study.
Page 10. There should only be one decimal place in the % data. 97.2% and 2.8%. Adopt this standard throughout the paper. There is an exception on Page 6. Round the data appropriately.
Page 13. It is ok to provide an example from China (Gou et al 2022). It is much more relevant to cite cases from Indonesia. The authors should include relevant Indonesian cases.
Page 13. The authors stated 'many literatures' than cite only two studies by the same authors. That is not 'many'. Suggest the authors add studies that show a time progression from 2000 to 2020. Additionally, in the last sentence state clearly why the 'layoffs and return migration' increased deforestation pressure.
Pages 13 and 14. The Results and Discussion section largely focuses on the function of the TPB framework with linkage to THK principles. Currently there are only vague statements regarding 'continuing sustainable forest management'. Presenting the ‘sustainable forest management’ data/results in Table 1 through 4 is not adequate. In the Discussion there should be a summary of the results regarding respondents' views of 'sustainable management of customary and village forests' in the context of 'return migrant receiving families'. Sustainable customary and village forest management is a dominant term in the title of the article - but it is not addressed in the Discussion
Discussion. In the Discussion I anticipate review/discussion of ‘community/social forestry’ issues that are relevant to the ‘returned migrants’ impact on traditional management. The authors may consider adding such analysis, which would make the paper pertinent to a wider range of cases and research. The authors doubtlessly are familiar with relevant literature. Some general options from the global, regional and country level are:
-Gilmour DA. 2016. Forty years of community based and effectiveness. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5415e.pd- Wong GY, et al., 2020 (ref 2)
-De Royer S, et al., 2018 (Ref 3)
Minor edits are suggested throughout the paper to improve grammar style, clarity and reduction of superfluous text.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Partly
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required.
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Partly
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above.
References:
COVID-19 Pandemic: Impacts, Craftsmen’s Living Strategies, and Economic Recovery of Bamboo Handicraft Enterprise in Gunungkidul, Indonesia.
Forest and Society.2022;6(2) :
10.24259/fs.v6i2.2059910.24259/fs.v6i2.20599:
Social forestry in Southeast Asia: Evolving interests, discourses and the many notions of equity.
Geoforum.2020;117:
10.1016/j.geoforum.2020.10.010246-25810.1016/j.geoforum.2020.10.010:
Does community-based forest management in Indonesia devolve social justice or social costs?.
International Forestry Review.2018;20(2) :
10.1505/146554818823767609167-18010.1505/146554818823767609HendartoKresno AgusPusat Riset Kependudukan, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional Republik Indonesia, Central Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
472025
1. Title: The title should reflect the focus of the study on the effect of ‘return migrant’ on sustainable forest management.
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
An extended Theory of Planned Behavior in explaining intention toward sustainable forest management: Evidence from COVID 19 Pandemic from Bali, Indonesia.
2. Two sets of aims are stated in the paper, one on page 5 and another on page 6. They are not consistent. See possible edit to clarify the situation.
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Reviewing these literatures, we found that significant gap, especially on migrant-receiving family. (1) most of the studies were based on assumptions (useful for scenario analysis) and generally, they used secondary data or online survey, instead of the actual data taken in the field; (2) …
Thus, the aim of this study is to improve understanding of the behavior of the migrant-receiving families.
3. As stated, the second aim (page 6) is ‘to improve understanding of the behavior of migrant receivers’. What is a ‘migrant receiver’? That term is never used again. Is it the same as ‘migrant-receiving family’? Be consistent in terminology
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Migrant receiver here is the same as migrant-receiving family.
4. IIn the paper does the term ‘migrant’ always refer to ‘return migrant’? If yes, include a statement making that point in the Introduction (after the aim). Currently there is a lack of clarity.
Thank you for suggestion.
Migrants in this study refer to return migrants.
It currently reads as follows:
Thus, the aim of this study is to improve understanding of the behavior of the migrant-receiving families. The word migrants in this study exclusively refers to return-migrant, namely those who inevitable return to their hometowns as a result of layoffs due to COVID-19. In other words, this study aims to investigate of the insignificant impact of COVID-19 pandemic-related damage on the management of customary forests and village forests in Bali.troduction (after the aim). Currently there is a lack of clarity.
5. Page 5. The Introduction could include a broader review of the literature, as the impact of COVID on local NRM varied. An example Utomo et al (2022) provides both support and contradiction to the current Introduction. Utomo et al. (2022) found COVID caused reduced production of bamboo crafts with a corresponding reduction of income in the bamboo craft sector. Response to that situation included an increase in the utilization of local forest resources (increased hunting and gathering) as well as an increase in farming. Citation and link here. The authors may know other relevant literature.
- Utomo MMB, et al., 2022 (Ref 1)
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
During COVID-19, bamboo craftsmen in Gunung Kidul Yogyakarta have earned up to 23.5% lower income. Consequently, they do such other jobs as farming, hunting, and selling food (Utomo et al. 2022). Likewise, a systematic evaluation using 62 indicators has revealed that COVID 19 has caused a significant decrease in production marketing, income, and social interaction for forest farmers in Sikka, East Nusa Tenggara (Njurumana et al. 2025).
6. Page 5. Second ‘aim’ – clarify the field data collected.
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Second, this study gathers field data. This study collects information directly from the source to ensure more authentic and representative insights, which can objectively reveal real-world phenomena and capture the possibly overlooked complexities that are relevant to the study questions or hypotheses.
7. Page 6. The authors should provide definitions of or distinguish the difference between 'customary forests' and 'village forests', in the context of this research.
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
The Regulation of the MoEF Number 9 of 2021 concerning social forestry management stated that customary forests are located within the territory of customary law communities. Customary areas refer to lands and/or waters along with the natural resources thereon, that have certain boundaries, and are owned, utilized preserved, and sustained from generation to generation to meet the needs of the community. The customary lands or forests are inherited from ancestors or acquired through the claim of ownership…
The Village forest is a forest areas that have not been burdened with permits. The village forests are customarily managed and utilized by the village for the welfare of the village, village areas, or areas resulting from management boundary agreements between adjacent villages. The community maps them in a participatory manner, and/or located within a single natural landscape in the village.
8. Page 6. It would be good to include the Indonesia terminology of the 3Ms - memakai masker, mencuci tangan, menjaga jarak
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
In order to protect the public’s health during the COVID 19 epidemic, the government imposed travel restrictions, promoted the 3M campaigns (Memakai masker, Mencuci tangan, dan Menjaga jarak/ mask use, hand washing, and maintaining social distancing), and administered vaccinations.
9. Page 7. Be consistent in use of capitalization. Throughout the paper
Thank you for suggestion.
We have carefully corrected the use of capitalization throughout the paper.
10. Page 10. Be consistent in the use of terminology. The Introduction gives the ‘aims’ of the study. Page 10 refers to the ‘objectives’ of the study.
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Following of the study aims, the specific criteria are people who: (1) cultivators of customary forests and village forests; (2) …
11. Page 10. There should only be one decimal place in the % data. 97.2% and 2.8%. Adopt this standard throughout the paper. There is an exception on Page 6. Round the data appropriately
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Comparing the same period in 2019 to all tropical areas, deforestation increased by 63.0% to 136.0% (
Brancalion et al. 2020).
The open unemployment rate in February 2020 was 1.3%, which increased to 5.4% in February 2021 and fell slightly to 5.3% in February 2022. The poverty rate increased, in March 2020 it was 165.19 (3. 8%) while in March 2021, it was 201.97 (4.5%) (
BPS 2022).
During COVID-19, bamboo craftsmen in Gunung Kidul Yogyakarta have earned up to 23.5% lower income. Consequently, they do such other jobs as farming, hunting, and selling food (Utomo et al. 2022).
For example, forest cover on Mansinam Island decreased by 4.3%, wasteland increased by 80.6%, agricultural land increased by 75.3%, and shrubs increased by 54.9%. Another finding is that 78.9% of total deforestation has resulted from forest conversion to wasteland and agricultural land (
Hematang et al., 2025).
The total population in the village of Wanagiri is 4,056 people; 51. 6% of which are men and 48.4% are women. Religion of the population are Hindus (98.9%); Islam (0. 7%); Christian (0.2%); Catholic (0.1%); and Budhis (0.1%) (
Sistem_Informasi_Desa, 2023).
Of the 71 data analyzed, the respondents were born and raised in the villages of Wanagiri and Tengganan (97.2%) while the rest were not born in the location and live in the villages of Wanagiri and Tengganan due to marriage (2.8%).
Most of the village forests have been planted with coffee. Total population in the village of Wanagiri is 4,056 people; 51.6% of which are men and 48.4% are women. Religion of the population are Hindus (98.9%); Islam (0.7%); Christian (0.2%); Catholic (0.1%); and Budhis (0.1%) (Sistem_Informasi_Desa, 2023). There are 296 families involved in village forest management. This number is divided into 3 forest farmer groups, namely Wana Amerta (with 78 families); Puncak Manik (35 families); and Jagra Wana (78 families).
Therefore 71 questionnaires were analyzed. Of the 71 data analyzed, the respondents were born and raised in the villages of Wanagiri and Tengganan (97.2%) while the rest were not born in the location and live in the villages of Wanagiri and Tengganan due to marriage (2.8%). Table 1 contains information about the respondent’s profile.
It implies an income discrepancy of IDR 147,344,000 or a decrease of up to 30.0% (Widhanarto et al. 2024).
12. Page 13. It is ok to provide an example from China (Gou et al 2022). It is much more relevant to cite cases from Indonesia. The authors should include relevant Indonesian cases.
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
For the case in Indonesia, there was a decrease in income in the wood processing industry business in Labe Lawe, Sekadau Hilir Regency, West Kalimantan, from previously IDR 492,927,000 before the Covid-19 pandemic and IDR 345,583,000 during the Covid-19 pandemic. It implies an income discrepancy of IDR 147,344,000 or a decrease of up to 30.0% (Widhanarto et al. 2024).
13. Page 13. The authors stated 'many literatures' than cite only two studies by the same authors. That is not 'many'. Suggest the authors add studies that show a time progression from 2000 to 2020. Additionally, in the last sentence state clearly why the 'layoffs and return migration' increased deforestation pressure
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Literatures reveales that deforestation (pressure on forests) has resulted from the increased conversion of forest land when compared to the desire to control the trees (
Kaimowitz & Angelsen 1998;
Angelsen & Kaimowitz 1999). In general, this conversion aims at opening up land for industry, settlements, plantations, agriculture, mining and others. When the COVID-19 pandemic occurred, this pressure increased with layoffs and return migration. When layoffs hit, they generally return to their hometowns to seek new opportunities, find temporary housing, and/or look for emotional and social support.. On the other hand, their hometowns offer very few formal employment opportunities that match the skills of the return migrants. Reduced or without income will force the return-migrant to turn to natural (agricultural) resources for survival. This will subsequently put pressure on the existing agricultural land, which in turn will encourage return-migrant to engage in activities that exploit natural resources including forests.
14. Pages 13 and 14. The Results and Discussion section largely focuses on the function of the TPB framework with linkage to THK principles. Currently there are only vague statements regarding 'continuing sustainable forest management'. Presenting the ‘sustainable forest management’ data/results in Table 1 through 4 is not adequate. In the Discussion there should be a summary of the results regarding respondents' views of 'sustainable management of customary and village forests' in the context of 'return migrant receiving families'. Sustainable customary and village forest management is a dominant term in the title of the article - but it is not addressed in the Discussion
Thank you for suggestion.
In line with the reviewer's suggestion and our response to point 1, we can explain this as follows:
The main objective of the study entitled Extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is to add new variables (constructs) to the original TPB model to improve the predictive and explanatory ability of human behavior. The original TPB model is available in Figure 3a. Although TPB has been proven effective in predicting various behaviors, researchers have recognized other influencing factors of intentions and behaviors as having not been included in the original model. In other words, the purpose this study is to build an accurate model in explaining and predicting the behavior of migrant-receiving families by including additional relevant contextual factors (i.e. Tri Hita Karana as a value).
15. Discussion. In the Discussion I anticipate review/discussion of ‘community/social forestry’ issues that are relevant to the ‘returned migrants’ impact on traditional management. The authors may consider adding such analysis, which would make the paper pertinent to a wider range of cases and research. The authors doubtlessly are familiar with relevant literature. Some general options from the global, regional and country level are:
-Gilmour DA. 2016. Forty years of community based and effectiveness. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5415e.pd- Wong GY, et al., 2020 (ref 2)
-De Royer S, et al., 2018 (Ref 3)
Thank you for suggestion. It currently reads as follows:
Social forestry often fails to provide full rights to local communities, especially in the context of customary rights and formal recognition (Wong et al. 2020). This is particularly true because participation is limited to village elites and technical support is almost non-existent. In other words, the main obstacles include bureaucratic processes and local actor exclusion (Royer et al. 2018). However, Decree number 1546 / MenLHK-PSKL / PKTHA / Kum.1 / 2/2019 of the Minister of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) that determined the forest in Tenganan as a customary forest; Decree of the Governor of Bali Number 2017 / 03-L / HK / 2005 that determined it as a Village Forest in Wanagiri; and Decree of the Governor of Bali Number 2017 / 03-L / HK / 2015 as well as Decree of the Buleleng Regent Number 430/405 / HK / 2017 concerning the Management of Tourism Villages in Wanagiri, have reduced some of these detrimental factors. This aligns with social forestry’s key success factors (Gilmour 2016): secure tenure rights, supportive regulation, strong governance, market access, and bureaucratic support.
The residents of Wanagiri Village have established a tourism awareness group as a part of the village-owned enterprise (BUMDes). Their income is derived from managing local natural tourist attractions such as Banyumala Waterfall, Puncak Manik Waterfall, and Buana Sari Waterfall, as well as providing tour guides (Laksemi et al., 2019). Local entrepreneurship practices in Wanagiri Village are organized by the BUMDes “Eka Giri Karya Utama”. The economic programs include savings and loans, tourism, coffee processing, waste management, and water management. They also developed LPD (Village Credit Institution) a village-level credit institution to provide financial access.
Likewise, the residents of Tenganan Village maintain the customary system and local wisdom in forest management. The community applies awig-awig to maintain and sustain the forest, even before receiving formal recognition from the government. These awig-awig are customary regulations that contain recommendations and prohibitions (for example, the prohibition of cutting down trees and changing the function of forest land without permission from the Traditional Village). The highly obedient community reflects the effectiveness of the awig-awig. Most resident whose lives are highly dependent on the sale of commodities, especially palm leaf crafts, Gringsing cloth (whose materials are collected from customary forests) stated that the tourism industry in Tenganan Village is very important and needs to be continuously developed. However, some indigenous people perceive tourism development as a mere bonus of the strengthening of local culture.
The two cases showed that SF in Wanagiri is more proactive in articulating ideas and social participation in village deliberation forums, while SF in Tenganan has provided full rights to the local community.
16. Minor edits are suggested throughout the paper to improve grammar style, clarity and reduction of superfluous text.
Thank you for suggestion.
We have done both using proof reading from Yogyakarta State University and Grammarly.
10.5256/f1000research.174043.r346466Reviewer response for version 1Daeng MassiriSudirman1Referee
Tadulako University, Palu City, Indonesia
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
The Covid 19 Pandemic problem has passed 5 years ago and Indonesia has successfully overcome this problem. However, this research predicts the impact of forest sustainability caused by the Covid 19 pandemic, through the application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) framework. The application of the TPB theoretical framework in predicting the behavior and intention to manage forests is the novelty of this research.
Background
Authors also need to corroborate with previous research to strengthen whether there is an impact of covid 19 on forest sustainability or on land cover change.
Sample
Why were non-migrant recipient communities not interviewed as behavioral controls?. Is there a difference between the community receiving covid 19 migrants and non-migrant recipients?.
Discussions
Discussions Should strengthening references that confirm whether the covid pandemic increased pressure on forest destruction? Or whether during covid 19 there was an increase in forest product commodities?
The author should also clarify whether there is a difference in the behavior of communities that accept migrants and communities that do not accept migrants.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Yes
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
Reviewer Expertise:
Forest Policy, Social forestry
I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above.