A Study about Perceptions of Kimono among College Students and Kimono Enthusiasts: Is It Difficult to Move in a Kimono?

Background Kimono is being reevaluated for its sustainability aspects, such as having fewer offcuts in the production process due to its structural differences from Western-style clothes and its high reusability due to the adaptability to individuals’ body shapes. On the other hand, once a common attire for daily wear in Japan, kimono has transitioned to being worn only on special events and the kimono-related industry has also shrunk. To stimulate demand for kimono, it is essential to familiarize younger generations with its potential as daily wear. Methods A questionnaire survey on perceptions of kimono was conducted among two groups in Japan: 211 college students and 50 kimono enthusiasts. The questionnaire included demographic questions and psychometric scales, primarily focusing on their kimono experiences, challenges associated with wearing kimono, their perceptions of kimono and Western-style clothes, and their attitudes towards kimono. Results The results revealed that a majority of students had worn kimono before, though they found it difficult to move while wearing it. In contrast, kimono enthusiasts evaluated it as easier to move, hard to become disheveled, and casual. They also rated the ease of wearing Western-style clothes lower compared to students, and this tendency intensified with the length of enthusiast experience. Furthermore, the findings indicated that enthusiasts regarded the kimono more as daily wear compared to students, while still deriving enjoyment from it as formal attire in special events. Conclusions These results suggest that the cognition that Western-style clothes are easy to move and kimono is not may change with experiences. Therefore, providing opportunities for people in Japan to acquire how to wear kimono in comfortable ways possibly impacts their perceptions of kimono.

1. Introduction 1.1 The decline of kimono wearing in Japan and its background Kimono, a traditional Japanese attire, is being reevaluated for its sustainability aspects, such as having fewer offcuts in the production process due to its structural differences from Western-style clothes and its high reusability due to the adaptability to individuals' body shapes.In Japan's school education system, there is also a focus on preserving traditional culture.The current Curriculum Guidelines for junior high schools issued in Heisei 29 (Ministry of Education in Japan, 2017) mention the possibility of introducing traditional Japanese clothes and teaching the basics of wearing them.
On the other hand, kimono is worn less frequently as daily wear in these days. 1 According to a kimono consumer survey (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry in Japan, 2015), targeting women aged 20 and over, 76.7% of respondents identified "ceremonial occasions" as situations in which they want to wear kimono in the future.In light of the current situation where there are limited opportunities to wear kimono, Yoshida (2014) claimed that kimono is no longer a fashion worn even in formal settings, but rather positioned as a special costume worn only during specific life events.
The kimono-related industry has also shrunk, once estimated as much as 2 trillion-yen industry, have fell to approximately 300 billion yen in 2011 (Yoshida, 2014).In terms of the preservation of Japan's traditional heritage, the kimono is currently facing a crisis.Adachi (2015) discusses the expansion of kimono distancing in modern clothes culture.The catalyst was the rapid proliferation of Western-style lifestyles, leading to a decline in demand for kimono.To compensate for the decrease in kimono sales, the industry pursued a strategy of developing only high-priced formal kimono, neglecting the casual kimono that was once worn in daily life.Consequently, the market became saturated with formal kimono, while casual kimono disappeared.The kimono, which used to be daily wear, became increasingly unaffordable for the average consumer and limited in occasions suitable for wearing.In order to encourage consumers to purchase these products, the industry emphasized their "year-round wearability" and "timelessness" as selling points.However, as a result, seasonal relevance diminished from the kimono displayed in stores, and there has been an increase in conservative classical patterns over more creatively expressive designs.

Current study
The kimono, by its nature, can be both casual and formal, depending on its type and how it is worn.Awareness of this versatility is crucial in recognition of the allure of the kimono.To stimulate demand for kimono, it is necessary to examine how individuals form their impressions of kimonos based on personal experiences.Particularly for women, the comfort of wearing a kimono can vary greatly depending on the position and width of the obi (sash) and the tightness of its tie.If one's past experiences with kimono have been limited to formal occasions, the perception of kimono may become fixed as rigid and cumbersome attire.
Therefore, this study aimed to first investigate the experiences and perceptions regarding kimono among younger generations who may not be familiar with them.Conversely, it explored what aspects of kimono appeal to individuals who are already familiar with them, and how these perceptions differ from those of the younger generation.The study targeted university students (both undergraduate and graduate) as well as kimono enthusiasts (individuals attending 1 It may be beneficial to distinguish between wearing kimono in daily life and wearing it in the workplace.Jayasooriya et al. (2020) conducted an interview-based study with Japanese female teachers, examining how the relaxation of dress codes in the workplace affected their professional performance.The findings suggest that while the duties of Japanese teachers are diverse, including not only teaching but also tasks such as supervising school-wide cleaning and assisting with school meals, the ability to wear casual attire facilitates their dynamic roles.Additionally, Namba (2008) argued that the transition from traditional Japanese clothing to Western-style attire in modern Japan has been obscured by preconceived notions.Namba's study investigates in detail the shifts in gender perspectives and aesthetic values, as well as the growing appreciation of the functionality of Western attire, which contributed to the change in clothing norms among female teachers.

REVISED Amendments from Version 2
In response to Reviewer 2's suggestion, we have added a footnote in the Introduction to distinguish between wearing kimono in everyday life and in the workplace.Additionally, we have addressed the significant age difference between the enthusiast group and the college student group, and the potential impact of this difference, by outlining it as a limitation of the study in the Conclusion.
Any further responses from the reviewers can be found at the end of the article kimono classes).By comparing data from these groups, the study also examined the backgrounds of individuals who became kimono enthusiasts, proposing initiatives to stimulate demand for kimono, particularly among the younger generation.
The hypothesis is as follows: perceptions of kimono differ between university students and kimono enthusiasts.University students rate the challenges of wearing kimono, particularly its difficulty to move and tightness associated with formal attire, higher than enthusiasts do.In contrast, kimono enthusiasts are aware of the two aspects of kimono (as special attire for formal occasions and as everyday wear) and therefore rate kimono as more "comfortable," "easy to move in," "less prone to becoming disheveled," and "casual" with a smaller perceived difference between kimono and Western-style clothes.Furthermore, this tendency among enthusiasts becomes more pronounced with increased years of experience.
To understand individuals' involvement with kimono, we utilized questionnaire items concerning their experiences of wearing kimono and the associated challenges, perceptions of kimono and Western-style clothes (Mino & Niwa, 2008), and inquiries into their attitudes towards kimono (Yoshida, 2014).

Consent and ethical considerations
This study was conducted after obtaining approval from the Research Ethics Committee at Utsunomiya University for research involving human subjects.The survey targeting students was approved on January 12, 2023 (Approval Number H22-0115), and a revised version including enthusiasts as subjects was subsequently approved on March 8, 2023 (Approval Number H22C-0115).The entire study was conducted in adherence with the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013).
The survey, titled "survey on kimono among college students" and "survey on kimono among kimono enthusiasts", respectively, involved distributing paper questionnaires during break times on campus or at kimono classes in the Kanto region.The detailed study hypothesis was not explained in advance to avoid biasing effects on the results.
It was emphasized that participation was voluntary, and participants were assured that their decision to participate or not would not result in any disadvantages, the survey responses would be used for research purposes only, all responses would be treated anonymously and analyzed statistically, and the survey data would be securely stored.Participants were also informed that they could withdraw from the survey at any time without facing any repercussions, even after agreeing to participate.They were instructed to proceed with the survey only if they agreed to these conditions.

Participants
A total of 211 university and graduate students from a university in Japan participated in the survey (79 males, 128 females; 2 respondents chose "no response" and 2 did not select any option; mean age 19.20 AE 1.85 years; 200 Japanese nationals, 2 Mongolian nationals, 9 Chinese nationals).Additionally, 50 individuals attending kimono classes in the Kanto region, participated (4 males, 36 females; mean age 63.00 AE 14.48 years, range 23-80 years, 2 respondents did not provide their age; mean duration of kimono enthusiast 17.42 AE 14.76 years, range 1-60 years, 2 respondents did not provide their duration of being kimono enthusiasts).

Data collection instrument
The questionnaire consisted of demographic questions and psychometric scales.
(1) Demographic questions: In the survey targeting students, this section consisted of items asking for gender, age, and nationality.For international students, respondents were also asked about the number of years since they arrived in Japan.In the survey targeting kimono enthusiasts, participants were asked to provide information on gender, age, current occupation, and the duration of their experience as a kimono enthusiast (in years).
(2) Experience with kimono: This section utilized items based on Mino & Niwa (2008; https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/senshoshi1960/49/11/49_11_793/_article/-char/ja/).Participants were presented with ten scenarios with a high likelihood of wearing kimono (e.g., summer festivals, Shichi-Go-San; a traditional Japanese celebration for children who are 3/5/7 years old, Coming of Age ceremonies) as well as an "Other" option, allowing them to select all scenarios in which they had worn kimono.If they chose "Other," they were provided with a space to specify the specific scenario.
(3) Challenges of wearing kimono: This section utilized items based on Mino & Niwa (2008).Participants were presented with ten options that could be considered challenges while wearing kimono (e.g., difficult to move, hot, cold), along with an "others" option allowing them to specify additional challenges if applicable.
Participants were instructed to select all options that applied to them.If they chose "others," they were provided with a space to specify the specific challenges.
(4) Perceptions of kimono and Western-style clothes: This section utilized items from Mino & Niwa (2008), focusing on the perception of clothes such as Western-style clothes, furisode (long-sleeved kimono for young women), and yukata (casual summer kimono).Participants were instructed to mark their perception on a scale of 0 to 10 for each of 11 adjective pairs (e.g., formal-casual) presented along a continuum.After completing the survey on kimono, participants were instructed to respond to the same 11 adjective pairs regarding Western-style clothes.
(5) Attitudes towards kimono: Participants were asked to respond to 38 items regarding attitudes towards kimono, based on Yoshida (2014; https://www.consortium.or.jp/seisaku/5137).Examples of these items include "I want to wear kimono as casual wear in my daily life."and "Wearing a kimono turns my mood off." Responses were solicited using a 7-point scale ranging from "1: Not at all applicable" to "7: Very applicable."

Results and Discussion
3.1 Past experience of wearing kimono

Experience and occasions of wearing kimono
Regarding students' experiences of wearing kimono, 36 participants (17.06% of the participants) reported that they had never worn kimono.Among them, 9 were female students (7.03% of female students), and 27 were male students (34.18% of male students).It is evident that even among the younger generation of students, the majority have had opportunities to wear kimono.In the case of kimono enthusiasts, all 50 participants reported having experience wearing kimono.
Figure 1 presents the aggregation of occasions for wearing kimono when considering the number of individuals who have worn kimono as 100% for male students, female students, and kimono enthusiasts, respectively.

Challenges of wearing kimono
The aggregated results of the challenges encountered when wearing kimono for both students and kimono enthusiasts are illustrated in Figure 2. The majority of students (72.2% of males and 82.0% of females) reported experiencing difficulty in movement while wearing kimono.Conversely, among kimono enthusiasts, it is evident that a relatively smaller proportion (52.0%) did so.

Differences in perceptions of kimono
We conducted an exploratory factor analysis on the overall data (students and kimono enthusiasts) regarding the image of kimono.In each item, missing values ranged from one to six participants and they were handled using list-wise deletion.As a result, only one factor was extracted.Two items, "Ease of aligning with fashion trends-Difficulty in alignment with fashion trends" (-.170) and "Fashionable-Not Fashionable" (.084), with factor loadings below .4 were omitted from subsequent analysis.
The remaining nine items (Table 1) were averaged to calculate the composite score for perceptions of kimono.Basic statistics for each group are presented in Table 2.
We conducted independent samples t-tests to examine whether there were differences in the composite scores for perceptions of kimono based on participants' attributes (students vs. kimono enthusiasts).Missing values were handled using pair-wise deletion.The results revealed a significant difference between groups (t(258)=-10.314,p<.001),  indicating that the kimono enthusiasts rated kimonos as more comfortable to wear, less prone to coming disheveled, and more casual compared to the students (Figure 3).
Additionally, to explore whether this tendency among kimono enthusiasts was strengthened with a longer duration of enthusiasm, we conducted a correlation analysis between the duration of kimono enthusiasm and the composite score for perceptions of kimono, focusing solely on data from kimono enthusiasts.However, no significant correlation was found (r=.185, p=.213).

Differences in perceptions of Western-style clothes
We also conducted an exploratory factor analysis on the scores for perception of Western-style clothes, encompassing all available data.In each item, missing values ranged from one to three participants and they were handled using list-wise deletion.As a result, three factors were extracted.Based on the content of each questionnaire items, we labeled the first factor as "easy to move," the second factor as "easy to wear in daily life," and the third factor as "fashionable."One item, "conspicuous-not conspicuous" (.368), with a factor loading below.4,was omitted from subsequent analysis.The remaining 10 items (Table 3) were averaged to calculate the composite score for perceptions of Western-style clothes.
To note, for the "fashionable" score for Western-style clothes, we reversed the numerical values to indicate higher scores representing "more fashionable" before calculating the mean.Basic statistics for each group are presented in Table 4.
We conducted independent t-tests below to examine differences between the groups (students vs. kimono enthusiasts) on each score.Missing values were handled using pair-wise deletion.
3.3.1 Score for "easy to move" First, there was no significant difference in score for "easy to move" between the groups (t(257)=1.299,p=.195).
However, a correlation analysis between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for "easy to move" in Western-style clothes using data only from the kimono enthusiasts revealed a weak but significant negative correlation (r=-.253,p=.090).This suggests that while the evaluation of "easy to move" in Western-style clothes does not differ significantly between the students and kimono enthusiasts overall, those with longer experience in kimono appreciation tend not to perceive Western-style clothes as particularly easy to move.As there is a positive correlation between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and age (r=.419, p=.004), one interpretation of the above results alone could be that  ease of movement in daily life decreases with age.However, as mentioned earlier, no correlation was found between the scores for perceptions of kimono (which also include the evaluation of ease of movement in kimono) and the duration of being kimono enthusiasts.Therefore, it would be more appropriate to interpret that the longer the duration of experience as a kimono enthusiast, the lower the evaluation of ease of movement in Western-style clothes.
3.3.2Score for "easy to wear in daily life" Next, when the dependent variable was the score for "easy to wear in daily life," there was a significant difference between the groups (t(258)=3.174,p=.002), indicating that the kimono enthusiasts rated the ease of wearing Westernstyle clothes lower than the students (see Figure 4).Furthermore, a correlation analysis was conducted using data only from the kimono enthusiasts to examine the relationship between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for "easy to wear in daily life" of Western-style clothes.The results showed a weak but significant negative correlation (r=-.264,p=.073).Thus, there is a possibility that the tendency observed in the t-test mentioned above, where the kimono enthusiasts rated the ease of wearing Western-style clothes lower, becomes stronger with a longer duration of kimono enthusiasm.

Score for "fashionable"
The results, with the "fashionable" score for Western-style clothes as the dependent variable, showed a significant difference between the groups (t(257)=-4.147,p<.001), indicating that the students rated the fashionability of Westernstyle clothes higher than the kimono enthusiasts (Figure 5).A correlation analysis was conducted using data only from the kimono enthusiasts, examining the relationship between their duration of kimono enthusiasm and the "fashionable" score for Western-style clothes, but no significant correlation was found (r=-.136,p=.369).

Differences in attitudes towards kimono
Next, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis on attitudes towards kimono using the entire dataset (students and kimono enthusiasts).In each item, missing values ranged from one to four participants and they were handled using listwise deletion.As a result, three factors were extracted.Based on the content of each questionnaire item, the first factor was labeled "kimono as daily wear," the second factor "kimono as a special day wear," and the third factor "adviser." 18 items with factor loadings below.4 were removed from subsequent analysis.
For the remaining 20 items (see Table 5), reverse scoring was applied to items as necessary to ensure alignment with the factor names, and composite scores were calculated by averaging scores within each factor.Basic statistics for each group are presented in Table 6.
We conducted independent t-tests below to compare the scores between the groups (students vs. kimono enthusiasts).Missing values were handled using pair-wise deletion.
3.4.1 Score for "kimono as daily wear" We first analyzed the score for "kimono as daily wear" as the dependent variable.The results showed a significant difference between the groups (t(258)=-11.107,p<.001), indicating that kimono enthusiasts perceived kimono more as   daily wear than students (Figure 6).Using data only from the kimono enthusiasts, a correlation analysis between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for "kimono as daily wear" was also conducted, but no significant correlation was found (r=.173, p=.241).
3.4.2Score for "kimono as a special day wear" Next, we analyzed the score for "kimono as a special day wear" as the dependent variable.There was no significant difference between the groups (t(258)=1.186,p=.237).This suggests that while enthusiasts may view kimono as more of a daily wear compared to students, they do not necessarily dismiss the enjoyment of wearing it as special attire.It can be inferred from the results that the kimono enthusiasts perceive kimono as adaptable clothes that can serve both daily and formal purposes, depending on the type of kimono and how it is worn.
A correlation analysis was conducted between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for "kimono as a special day wear" using data exclusively from the kimono enthusiasts, but no significant correlation was observed (r=.155, p=.293).

Score for "adviser"
We analyzed the "adviser" score as the dependent variable.As the results, there was a significant difference between the groups (t(258)=-6.181,p<.001), indicating that kimono enthusiasts are more likely to have someone they can casually consult about kimono compared to students (Figure 7).Whether this result reflects the need for advice on kimono among enthusiasts, who likely have more opportunities to wear kimono, or conversely, whether the availability of someone to consult about kimono has contributed to becoming an enthusiast, warrants further investigation.Figure 7. Group comparison of scores for "adviser" (the error bars represent standard errors).
A correlation analysis was conducted between the duration of kimono enthusiasm and the "adviser" score using data exclusively from the kimono enthusiasts, but no significant correlation was observed (r=.074, p=.617).

Conclusion
In this study, a questionnaire survey was conducted with Japanese college students and kimono enthusiasts to investigate their experiences with wearing kimono and its challenges, their perceptions of kimono and Western-style clothes, and their attitudes towards kimono.
Firstly, the results indicated that a significant portion of students had opportunities to wear kimono in the past while many students experienced challenges such as difficulty in movement while wearing kimono.This could be attributed to the fact that students' experiences primarily involved wearing kimono for formal occasions or events such as Shichi-Go-San (a traditional rite of passage), where they may have tightly dressed in kimono to prevent them from coming undone.This suggests a consistent trend where students perceive Western-style clothes as more comfortable for movement compared to kimono, reflected across scores for perceptions of kimono, perceptions of Western-style clothes, and attitudes towards kimono.In other words, it seems that the versatility of kimono, which can be casual and easy to move in depending on the type and styling, is not recognized by the younger generation who have only experienced it as formal attire.Adachi (2015) observed that when considering the task of dressing a bedridden individual, it is apparent that kimonos are far more practical than Western-style clothes.Adachi argued that the notion that the popular belief as "Western-style clothes are functional while kimonos are not" stems from the perspective of able-bodied individuals, and negates the inherent flexibility and adaptability of traditional kimono attire.
On the other hand, it seems that among kimono enthusiasts, the tendency to perceive Western-style clothes as more functionally superior to kimono has been alleviated.The kimono enthusiasts rated kimonos as easier to move, harder to become disheveled, and more casual compared to students.They rated the ease of wearing Western-style clothes lower than college students, with this tendency becoming more pronounced among those with longer experience as enthusiasts.Also, there is a trend for the evaluation of the ease of movement in Western-style clothes to decrease as the duration of enthusiasm increases.Furthermore, while the kimono enthusiasts considered kimonos more of a "daily wear" compared to the college students, they did not deny the enjoyment of wearing them as formal attire.
From these results, it can be inferred that the tendency to perceive kimono as more functionally inferior to Western-style clothes may change as individuals accumulate experiences related to kimono.Conversely, to change the negative perceptions of kimono among young people, providing opportunities for them to experience more comfortable ways of wearing kimono could have an impact.Ensuring an adequate number of classes, support systems for dressing in coeducation environments would be key issues to be addressed, creating sufficient opportunities in Japanese school education.
Another distinction between the students and kimono enthusiasts is the availability of supportive environments for seeking advice about kimonos among the enthusiasts.This implies that newcomers, unfamiliar with kimono attire, could engage with the kimono community through these advisory channels and potentially develop into kimono enthusiasts.Further investigation through interviews will be needed to delve into this process of participation.
The potential confounding between years of kimono enthusiasm and age also needs to be carefully treated: A significant disparity exists between the mean age of the college student group and that of the kimono enthusiasts, which may impact their daily routines and preferences for everyday attire.Moreover, age differences could influence their exposure to cultural values and knowledge, potentially leading to divergent attitudes towards kimono.Similarly, the finding that "the ease of movement in Western clothing becomes less significant as the experience of wearing kimono increases" must be carefully examined in future research to determine whether this applies more broadly to populations beyond kimono enthusiasts.
Currently, the inbound demand, which has been severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, is gradually recovering.Conducting surveys to understand the perceptions and needs of individuals with cultural backgrounds different from Japanese, regarding kimono, will become increasingly important.From the perspective of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there is also a possibility of growing attention towards kimono as sustainable clothing.Therefore, it is necessary to conduct surveys targeting foreign tourists to Japan and overseas kimono enthusiasts, and comparing the results with those in Japan.
By accumulating such insights, we aim to contribute to the expansion of kimono demand in the future.This project contains the following extended data:

Extended data
• Kimono Questionnaire for Enthusiasts (A complete questionnaire for kimono enthusiasts translated into English) • Kimono Questionnaire for Students (A complete questionnaire for students translated into English) • STROBE_checklist_cross-sectional-F1000.docx (A reporting checklist according to STROBE cross-sectional research guidelines) and attitudes towards wearing kimono among college students and kimono enthusiasts.The methodology employed is clearly articulated, and the paper presents the data and results appropriately.However, I find my statistical knowledge insufficient to provide detailed comments on the chosen statistical tests and their usage.
The authors discuss literature, highlighting the decline in kimono wearing.It would have been more informative if the distinction between wearing kimono in "daily life" and at work had been elaborated.Before World War II, it was common for schoolteachers to wear kimono, but this practice shifted to Western-style attire.While Westernization significantly contributed to this shift, other factors such as economic considerations, safety, and productivity-related issues also played a role (See T, Namba,2008 [Ref 1]] and UGLB, Jayasooriya, et. al., 2020 [Ref 2]).
There is a considerable difference between the mean age of the college student group and that of kimono enthusiasts, which may influence their daily activities and preferences for "daily wear".Additionally, age differences might affect exposure to cultural values and knowledge, resulting in varying attitudes towards kimono.These showcase limitations of comparison between the two groups, which would be appropriate to mention.On the other hand, the perceptions of kimono enthusiasts are biased in favor of kimono.Therefore, in the conclusion section of the abstract, it would be appropriate to specify that 'the ease of movement in Western clothing is alleviated as the experience of wearing kimono increases' is a perception that may not be shared by college students since that finding is based on kimono enthusiasts' data.Moreover, understanding what inspires kimono enthusiasts to embrace kimono culture would be valuable information to explore more (especially through interviews as authors have suggested) in future research to find how to popularize kimono.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Occasions where participants wore kimonos in the past (multiple responses possible).

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Group comparison of scores for perceptions of kimono (the error bars represent standard errors).

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Group comparison of scores for "fashionable" of Western-style clothes (the error bars represent standard errors).

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Group comparison of scores for "easy to wear in daily life" of Western-style clothes (the error bars represent standard errors).

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.Group comparison of scores for "kimono as daily wear" (the error bars represent standard errors).

Table 1 .
Results of factor analysis on scores for perceptions of kimono.

Table 2 .
Basic statistics of the composite score for perceptions of kimono.

Table 4 .
Basic statistics of each composite score for perceptions of Western-style clothes.

Table 3 .
Results of factor analysis on score for perceptions of Western-style clothes.

Table 5 .
Factor analysis results for scores of attitudes towards kimono (* denotes reversed items).

Table 6 .
Basic statistics of each composite scores for attitudes towards kimono.
Utsunomiya University Academic Institutional Repository: Is It Difficult to Move in a Kimono?A Study about Perceptions of Kimono among College Students and Kimono Enthusiasts.https://doi.org/10.24565/0002000161(Miyashiro et al., 2024).

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