Kimono, a traditional Japanese attire, is being reevaluated for its sustainability aspects, such as having fewer offcuts in the production process due to its structural differences from Western-style clothes and its high reusability due to the adaptability to individuals’ body shapes. In Japan's school education system, there is also a focus on preserving traditional culture. The current Curriculum Guidelines for junior high schools issued in Heisei 29 ( Ministry of Education in Japan, 2017) mention the possibility of introducing traditional Japanese clothes and teaching the basics of wearing them.

On the other hand, kimono is worn less frequently as daily wear in these days. According to a kimono consumer survey ( Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry in Japan, 2015), targeting women aged 20 and over, 76.7% of respondents identified “ceremonial occasions” as situations in which they want to wear kimono in the future. In light of the current situation where there are limited opportunities to wear kimono, Yoshida (2014) claimed that kimono is no longer a fashion worn even in formal settings, but rather positioned as a special costume worn only during specific life events.

The kimono-related industry has also shrunk, once estimated as much as 2 trillion-yen industry, have fell to approximately 300 billion yen in 2011 ( Yoshida, 2014). In terms of the preservation of Japan's traditional heritage, the kimono is currently facing a crisis.

Adachi (2015) discusses the expansion of kimono distancing in modern clothes culture. The catalyst was the rapid proliferation of Western-style lifestyles, leading to a decline in demand for kimono. To compensate for the decrease in kimono sales, the industry pursued a strategy of developing only high-priced formal kimono, neglecting the casual kimono that was once worn in daily life. Consequently, the market became saturated with formal kimono, while casual kimono disappeared. The kimono, which used to be daily wear, became increasingly unaffordable for the average consumer and limited in occasions suitable for wearing. In order to encourage consumers to purchase these products, the industry emphasized their “year-round wearability” and “timelessness” as selling points. However, as a result, seasonal relevance diminished from the kimono displayed in stores, and there has been an increase in conservative classical patterns over more creatively expressive designs.

The kimono, by its nature, can be both casual and formal, depending on its type and how it is worn. Awareness of this versatility is crucial in recognition of the allure of the kimono. To stimulate demand for kimono, it is necessary to examine how individuals form their impressions of kimonos based on personal experiences. Particularly for women, the comfort of wearing a kimono can vary greatly depending on the position and width of the obi (sash) and the tightness of its tie. If one's past experiences with kimono have been limited to formal occasions, the perception of kimono may become fixed as rigid and cumbersome attire.

Therefore, this study aimed to first investigate the experiences and perceptions regarding kimono among younger generations who may not be familiar with them. Conversely, it explored what aspects of kimono appeal to individuals who are already familiar with them, and how these perceptions differ from those of the younger generation. The study targeted university students (both undergraduate and graduate) as well as kimono enthusiasts (individuals attending kimono classes). By comparing data from these groups, the study also examined the backgrounds of individuals who became kimono enthusiasts, proposing initiatives to stimulate demand for kimono, particularly among the younger generation.

To understand individuals' involvement with kimono, we utilized questionnaire items concerning their experiences of wearing kimono and the associated challenges, perceptions of kimono and Western-style clothes ( Mino & Niwa, 2008), and inquiries into their attitudes towards kimono ( Yoshida, 2014).

This study was conducted after obtaining approval from the Research Ethics Committee at Utsunomiya University for research involving human subjects. The survey targeting students was approved on January 12, 2023 (Approval Number H22-0115), and a revised version including enthusiasts as subjects was subsequently approved on March 8, 2023 (Approval Number H22C-0115). The entire study was conducted in adherence with the Declaration of Helsinki ( World Medical Association, 2013).

The survey, titled “survey on kimono among college students” and “survey on kimono among kimono enthusiasts”, respectively, involved distributing paper questionnaires during break times on campus or at kimono classes in the Kanto region. The detailed study hypothesis was not explained in advance to avoid biasing effects on the results.

It was emphasized that participation was voluntary, and participants were assured that their decision to participate or not would not result in any disadvantages, the survey responses would be used for research purposes only, all responses would be treated anonymously and analyzed statistically, and the survey data would be securely stored. Participants were also informed that they could withdraw from the survey at any time without facing any repercussions, even after agreeing to participate. They were instructed to proceed with the survey only if they agreed to these conditions.

A total of 211 university and graduate students from a university in Japan participated in the survey (79 males, 128 females; 2 respondents chose “no response” and 2 did not select any option; mean age 19.20 ± 1.85 years; 200 Japanese nationals, 2 Mongolian nationals, 9 Chinese nationals). Additionally, 50 individuals attending kimono classes in the Kanto region, participated (4 males, 36 females; mean age 63.00 ± 14.48 years, range 23-80 years, 2 respondents did not provide their age; mean duration of kimono enthusiast 17.42 ± 14.76 years, range 1-60 years, 2 respondents did not provide their duration of being kimono enthusiasts).

The questionnaire consisted of demographic questions and psychometric scales. (1)

Demographic questions: In the survey targeting students, this section consisted of items asking for gender, age, and nationality. For international students, respondents were also asked about the number of years since they arrived in Japan. In the survey targeting kimono enthusiasts, participants were asked to provide information on gender, age, current occupation, and the duration of their experience as a kimono enthusiast (in years).

3.1.1 Experience and occasions of wearing kimono

Regarding students' experiences of wearing kimono, 36 participants (17.06% of the participants) reported that they had never worn kimono. Among them, 9 were female students (7.03% of female students), and 27 were male students (34.18% of male students). It is evident that even among the younger generation of students, the majority have had opportunities to wear kimono. In the case of kimono enthusiasts, all 50 participants reported having experience wearing kimono.

Figure 1 presents the aggregation of occasions for wearing kimono when considering the number of individuals who have worn kimono as 100% for male students, female students, and kimono enthusiasts, respectively.

3.1.2 Challenges of wearing kimono

The aggregated results of the challenges encountered when wearing kimono for both students and kimono enthusiasts are illustrated in Figure 2. The majority of students (72.2% of males and 82.0% of females) reported experiencing difficulty in movement while wearing kimono. Conversely, among kimono enthusiasts, it is evident that a relatively smaller proportion (52.0%) did so.

We conducted an exploratory factor analysis on the overall data (students and kimono enthusiasts) regarding the image of kimono. In each item, missing values ranged from one to six participants and they were handled using list-wise deletion. As a result, only one factor was extracted. Two items, “Ease of aligning with fashion trends—Difficulty in alignment with fashion trends” (-.170) and “Fashionable—Not Fashionable” (.084), with factor loadings below .4 were omitted from subsequent analysis.

The remaining nine items ( Table 1) were averaged to calculate the composite score for perceptions of kimono. Basic statistics for each group are presented in Table 2.

We conducted independent samples t-tests to examine whether there were differences in the composite scores for perceptions of kimono based on participants' attributes (students vs. kimono enthusiasts). Missing values were handled using pair-wise deletion. The results revealed a significant difference between groups ( t(258)=-10.314, p<.001), indicating that the kimono enthusiasts rated kimonos as more comfortable to wear, less prone to coming disheveled, and more casual compared to the students ( Figure 3).

Additionally, to explore whether this tendency among kimono enthusiasts was strengthened with a longer duration of enthusiasm, we conducted a correlation analysis between the duration of kimono enthusiasm and the composite score for perceptions of kimono, focusing solely on data from kimono enthusiasts. However, no significant correlation was found ( r=.185, p=.213).

We also conducted an exploratory factor analysis on the scores for perception of Western-style clothes, encompassing all available data. In each item, missing values ranged from one to three participants and they were handled using list-wise deletion. As a result, three factors were extracted. Based on the content of each questionnaire items, we labeled the first factor as “easy to move,” the second factor as “easy to wear in daily life,” and the third factor as “fashionable.” One item, “conspicuous—not conspicuous” (.368), with a factor loading below.4, was omitted from subsequent analysis. The remaining 10 items ( Table 3) were averaged to calculate the composite score for perceptions of Western-style clothes.

To note, for the “fashionable” score for Western-style clothes, we reversed the numerical values to indicate higher scores representing “more fashionable” before calculating the mean. Basic statistics for each group are presented in Table 4.

We conducted independent t-tests below to examine differences between the groups (students vs. kimono enthusiasts) on each score. Missing values were handled using pair-wise deletion.

3.3.1 Score for “easy to move”

First, there was no significant difference in score for “easy to move” between the groups ( t(257)=1.299, p=.195).

However, a correlation analysis between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for “easy to move” in Western-style clothes using data only from the kimono enthusiasts revealed a weak but significant negative correlation ( r=-.253, p=.090). This suggests that while the evaluation of “easy to move” in Western-style clothes does not differ significantly between the students and kimono enthusiasts overall, those with longer experience in kimono appreciation tend not to perceive Western-style clothes as particularly easy to move. As there is a positive correlation between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and age ( r=.419, p=.004), one interpretation of the above results alone could be that ease of movement in daily life decreases with age. However, as mentioned earlier, no correlation was found between the scores for perceptions of kimono (which also include the evaluation of ease of movement in kimono) and the duration of being kimono enthusiasts. Therefore, it would be more appropriate to interpret that the longer the duration of experience as a kimono enthusiast, the lower the evaluation of ease of movement in Western-style clothes.

3.3.2 Score for “easy to wear in daily life”

Next, when the dependent variable was the score for “easy to wear in daily life,” there was a significant difference between the groups ( t(258)=3.174, p=.002), indicating that the kimono enthusiasts rated the ease of wearing Western-style clothes lower than the students (see Figure 4). Furthermore, a correlation analysis was conducted using data only from the kimono enthusiasts to examine the relationship between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for “easy to wear in daily life” of Western-style clothes. The results showed a weak but significant negative correlation ( r=-.264, p=.073). Thus, there is a possibility that the tendency observed in the t-test mentioned above, where the kimono enthusiasts rated the ease of wearing Western-style clothes lower, becomes stronger with a longer duration of kimono enthusiasm.

3.3.3 Score for “fashionable”

The results, with the “fashionable” score for Western-style clothes as the dependent variable, showed a significant difference between the groups ( t(257)=-4.147, p<.001), indicating that the students rated the fashionability of Western-style clothes higher than the kimono enthusiasts ( Figure 5). A correlation analysis was conducted using data only from the kimono enthusiasts, examining the relationship between their duration of ”kimono enthusiasm and the “fashionable” score for Western-style clothes, but no significant correlation was found ( r=-.136, p=.369).

Next, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis on attitudes towards kimono using the entire dataset (students and kimono enthusiasts). In each item, missing values ranged from one to four participants and they were handled using list-wise deletion. As a result, three factors were extracted. Based on the content of each questionnaire item, the first factor was labeled “kimono as daily wear,” the second factor “kimono as a special day wear,” and the third factor “adviser.” 18 items with factor loadings below. 4 were removed from subsequent analysis.

For the remaining 20 items (see Table 5), reverse scoring was applied to items as necessary to ensure alignment with the factor names, and composite scores were calculated by averaging scores within each factor. Basic statistics for each group are presented in Table 6.

We conducted independent t-tests below to compare the scores between the groups (students vs. kimono enthusiasts). Missing values were handled using pair-wise deletion.

3.4.1 Score for “kimono as daily wear”

We first analyzed the score for “kimono as daily wear” as the dependent variable. The results showed a significant difference between the groups ( t(258)=-11.107, p<.001), indicating that kimono enthusiasts perceived kimono more as daily wear than students ( Figure 6). Using data only from the kimono enthusiasts, a correlation analysis between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for “kimono as daily wear” was also conducted, but no significant correlation was found ( r=.173, p=.241).

3.4.2 Score for “kimono as a special day wear”

Next, we analyzed the score for “kimono as a special day wear” as the dependent variable. There was no significant difference between the groups ( t(258)=1.186, p=.237). This suggests that while enthusiasts may view kimono as more of a daily wear compared to students, they do not necessarily dismiss the enjoyment of wearing it as special attire. It can be inferred from the results that the kimono enthusiasts perceive kimono as adaptable clothes that can serve both daily and formal purposes, depending on the type of kimono and how it is worn.

A correlation analysis was conducted between the duration of being kimono enthusiasts and the score for “kimono as a special day wear” using data exclusively from the kimono enthusiasts, but no significant correlation was observed ( r=.155, p=.293).

3.4.3 Score for “adviser”

We analyzed the “adviser” score as the dependent variable. As the results, there was a significant difference between the groups ( t(258)=-6.181, p<.001), indicating that kimono enthusiasts are more likely to have someone they can casually consult about kimono compared to students ( Figure 7). Whether this result reflects the need for advice on kimono among enthusiasts, who likely have more opportunities to wear kimono, or conversely, whether the availability of someone to consult about kimono has contributed to becoming an enthusiast, warrants further investigation.

A correlation analysis was conducted between the duration of kimono enthusiasm and the “adviser” score using data exclusively from the kimono enthusiasts, but no significant correlation was observed ( r=.074, p=.617).