The participants consisted of 15 classroom teachers (one from each school) selected through purposive sampling. The inclusion criteria were: (1) teachers currently teaching in inclusive classrooms with at least one student with special needs, and (2) teachers with direct experience in using or attempting to use social media in teaching. Of the 15 teachers, nine were female and six were male, with teaching experience ranging from 5 to 20 years (see Table 1). All participants had experience working with students with special needs in inclusive settings. This diversity in participant background contributed to the richness of perspectives across provinces.

Data collection used a triangulation strategy, combining semi-structured interviews and questionnaires to enhance the credibility of findings. 1)

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect qualitative data on teachers’ perceptions, experiences, challenges, and recommendations. The development of the interview guide followed a rigorous process. Initially, a list of 24 potential questions was compiled from a review of previous studies on social media in inclusive education and pedagogy ( Humaira et al., 2025). These questions were then grouped and refined into three main themes derived from the literature and the study’s conceptual framework: (1) perceptions of social media use in inclusive classrooms, (2) challenges and opportunities in integrating SMN into Indonesian language learning, and (3) recommendations for strategy development. To ensure validity and clarity, the draft interview guide was reviewed by three experts in inclusive education, Indonesian language, and elementary education. Based on their input, several questions were reformulated to be simpler and more culturally relevant, while repetitive items were removed. A pilot test with five teachers was also conducted, after which adjustments were made by adding follow-up questions on digital literacy and parental engagement, as these issues emerged significantly in the pilot test. The final interview guide was thus evidence-based and context-grounded, allowing for a rich yet focused exploration of the research questions ( Humaira et al., 2025). Interviews were conducted online (via Zoom) and/or in-person, depending on accessibility, and each lasted 45–60 minutes. With written consent, interviews were recorded using a digital audio recorder or Zoom’s recording feature and then transcribed verbatim for analysis.

The data collection process took place over four months, from August to November 2024. Questionnaires were distributed first (August–September) to gather baseline qualitative data, followed by interviews (September–November) to explore emerging themes in greater depth. Importantly, the analysis of questionnaire responses was conducted on a rolling basis rather than waiting until all responses were collected. This allowed the research team to identify patterns early and refine subsequent data collection. One such adjustment emerged from teachers’ open-ended responses, which consistently pointed to inequalities in digital literacy. For example, several teachers reported that students from lower-income families had limited access to devices or lacked the basic skills to use social media features such as uploading files or creating videos. Recognizing the importance of this issue, the research team modified the interview guide by expanding certain probes. Specifically, additional follow-up questions were included to explore (1) how teachers supported students with low digital literacy, (2) what strategies were used in classrooms with high variation in digital skills, and (3) whether peer mentoring or parental involvement played a role. These iterative adjustments illustrate the study’s flexible design and ensured that the interviews addressed not only the initially planned themes but also new, context-specific issues that emerged from the questionnaire data.

All interview recordings were transcribed verbatim, and open-ended questionnaire responses were entered into NVivo 14 for analysis. Data were anonymized by assigning codes based on province names (e.g., TWJ1, TCJ1, TEJ1, TY1, TSK1) to replace participants’ names and schools. Transcripts and datasets were stored in a restricted-access Google Drive folder, which was available only to the research team. To further ensure confidentiality and compliance with ethical standards, the folder was secured with password protection and data encryption . Data integrity was verified by cross-checking transcripts with recordings and validating questionnaire entries. These measures minimized the risk of unauthorized access and safeguarded the privacy of all participants throughout the research process.

Thematic analysis ( Clarke & Braun, 2013) was used to identify recurring patterns. This process involved data familiarization, initial coding, theme construction, theme review, and final reporting. Coding was conducted independently by two researchers; discrepancies were discussed until consensus was reached.

Questionnaire data were analyzed through open-ended responses (e.g., descriptions of teachers’ experiences, expectations, and perceived challenges) and coded thematically using NVivo 14. The coding process followed Clarke & Braun’s (2013) six steps of thematic analysis (familiarization, initial coding, theme discovery, theme review, defining/naming themes, and reporting). These open-ended responses provided nuanced insights into teachers’ practices and attitudes. NVivo 14 was used to manage qualitative data and visualize coding structures.

Several strategies were implemented to strengthen trustworthiness and credibility. First, triangulation of interviews and questionnaires allowed for cross-validation of findings. Second, member checking was conducted by sharing initial results with three participants to ensure the accuracy and resonance of interpretations. While the number may seem limited, this was due to practical constraints such as teachers’ limited availability during the academic semester and the need to avoid imposing additional workload. The three teachers were purposively selected to represent different provinces and teaching experiences, ensuring that their feedback reflected diverse perspectives. Their input confirmed the clarity of themes and provided suggestions for refining the interpretation of digital literacy challenges. Third, an audit trail documented coding decisions and analytical memos, ensuring transparency. Fourth, double coding by two researchers reduced bias and increased reliability. Fifth, anonymization and confidentiality measures maintained ethical standards.

This study complied with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Universitas Djuanda (Approval No. 002/LPPM/KEP/VIII/2024). All participating teachers provided written informed consent (No. 002/IC/LPPM/XI/2024) after receiving information on the study’s objectives, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time. To ensure confidentiality, all personal identifiers were removed and replaced with province-based codes (e.g., TWJ1 for West Java, TCJ1 for Central Java). Data were securely stored in a password-protected, encrypted Google Drive folder accessible only to the research team. These measures ensured participant privacy, data integrity, and adherence to the highest ethical standards in educational research.

Social media has proven effective in supporting collaborative learning in inclusive elementary school environments ( Bozanta & Mardikyan, 2017; Damayanti & Nuzuli, 2023; Hajarudin, 2023; McPherson, 2018). Teachers and students reported that platforms such as WhatsApp, Google Classroom, TikTok, and YouTube enabled them to interact, share ideas, and work together on Indonesian language learning projects ( Figure 2). Students felt more engaged because they could collaborate in real time both inside and outside the classroom ( Boruzie et al., 2024; Klang et al., 2020).

Teachers highlighted that social media facilitated smoother communication between students with different needs. As one teacher explained:

Another teacher noted how social media helped break down barriers for students with special needs:

In this way, “smoother communication” referred to providing alternative ways for participation, enabling collaboration despite differences in ability.

Social media also supported asynchronous collaboration, allowing students to engage with materials beyond regular class hours. One teacher described:

This flexibility reduced pressure for students who faced barriers such as shyness, social anxiety, or physical limitations, enabling them to contribute at their own pace.

Social media provides significant flexibility because it allows students to interact and collaborate without being limited by classroom boundaries or time. In inclusive schools, this flexibility is especially important to accommodate students with different backgrounds and abilities, including those with special needs. By using social media, students can access learning materials, interact with teachers, and discuss with classmates at any time. This helps students learn at their own rhythm, especially those who require more time to understand the material ( Demetriou, 2023; Khanna & Bhola, 2023).

Social media also gives students opportunities to review materials, complete assignments within deadlines, or ask teachers questions outside school hours. Teachers, in turn, can apply differentiated approaches by providing content in various formats (video, text, images, or audio) to suit students’ diverse learning needs ( Demetriou, 2023). Collaboration was further observed when students gave feedback to one another and discussed lesson materials, which was particularly helpful for those struggling to understand the content.

Despite these benefits, challenges remained, such as the lack of active participation among students unfamiliar with technology or those with limited access. Teachers therefore play a crucial role in monitoring, facilitating, and offering additional support to ensure all students, including those with special needs, can participate optimally. With a proactive approach, these challenges can be addressed, allowing social media–based collaborative learning to become more inclusive and effective.

The use of social media in Indonesian language learning in inclusive elementary schools has strong potential to enhance students’ digital literacy skills ( Erazo-Moreno et al., 2024; Riga et al., 2021) ( Figure 3). Through social media, students not only socialize but also practice searching for information, reading and writing critically, and understanding various digital text formats. These activities support their Indonesian language learning while simultaneously fostering essential technology skills needed for the future.

Social media provides students with access to a wide and diverse range of information. Tasks such as creating video content, writing short articles, or engaging in online discussions train students to manage information, evaluate the validity of sources, and communicate effectively in digital contexts ( Baxter & Reeves, 2023; Gillett‐Swan & Sargeant, 2018). In this way, social media–based learning enriches Indonesian language skills through interactive activities like video production, writing captions, commenting on peers’ work, or participating in digital discussions. At the same time, students build technological competence by productively using digital devices and online platforms ( Bastian et al., 2023; Riga et al., 2021).

Teachers observed that these tasks such as producing short TikTok videos or writing captions helped students develop digital literacy. However, it is important to note that these skills were reported by teachers based on classroom observations, not directly measured by researchers. For example:

Despite these benefits, differences in digital literacy were evident, particularly among students from economically disadvantaged families:

Such students struggled not only with access but also with basic digital skills, such as uploading files or using simple editing tools. These disparities highlight the inequality of opportunities in inclusive classrooms and the need for additional teacher support to ensure equitable participation.

Although social media offers many learning benefits, one of the main findings of this study is the concern regarding student safety ( Figure 4). Teachers and parents emphasized that elementary school students are vulnerable to risks such as cyberbullying and exposure to inappropriate content ( Ananda & Marno, 2023; Hafiar et al., 2020; Wong et al., 2022).

While social media enhances interaction and collaboration, it also brings significant risks. These risks are particularly relevant in Indonesia, where elementary school students are still developing emotionally and socially, making them more susceptible to negative influences from the online environment. Cyberbullying defined as intimidation or hurtful behavior through digital media such as social networks, text messages, or other online platforms was a major concern ( Evangelio et al., 2022). Teachers shared that incident of cyberbullying had already occurred:

In addition to cyberbullying, teachers and parents raised concerns about exposure to inappropriate content, such as violent or irrelevant videos that appeared on students’ TikTok feeds. Despite existing user age restrictions and content regulations, many children were still able to access harmful materials, including violence, pornography, or misleading information ( Hafiar et al., 2020). These experiences reinforced the need for stronger supervision in inclusive classrooms.

Collaboration between teachers and parents was described as crucial but often informal and reactive:

To directly address the challenges identified in this study and to fulfill its stated objective, a Social Media Networking (SMN) framework is proposed for application in inclusive Indonesian language classrooms. The framework is structured into four interconnected stages: planning, implementation, monitoring and support, and evaluation and reflection.

3.4.1 Planning

In this stage, teachers align Indonesian language learning objectives (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) with the choice of social media platforms that are both familiar and accessible to students. The findings from both interviews and questionnaires confirmed that teachers frequently selected WhatsApp for text and voice communication, TikTok and YouTube for video-based activities, and Google Classroom for assignment management. Similar findings are reported by Barrot (2022), who emphasized that social media platforms are effective in supporting language acquisition when teachers carefully match learning goals with platform features. This alignment ensures that technology becomes an enabler rather than a distraction, particularly for students with special needs who require multiple modes of content delivery.

3.4.2 Implementation

Learning activities should be designed to allow both synchronous (real-time) and asynchronous (flexible-time) participation. Teachers in this study reported that asynchronous activities such as reviewing videos at home or sending voice notes gave students with shyness, anxiety, or physical limitations more time and space to contribute meaningfully. As one teacher explained:

This resonates with Demetriou (2023) and Khanna & Bhola (2023), who found that flexible participation is particularly beneficial in inclusive classrooms, as it respects individual learning rhythms. The combination of synchronous discussions and asynchronous submissions thus allows differentiated participation, ensuring that all students can demonstrate their abilities in ways that suit them best.

3.4.3 Monitoring and support

The triangulation of data from interviews and questionnaires revealed strong concerns about cyberbullying and exposure to inappropriate content. Teachers consistently emphasized the need for closer supervision. For example:

In this framework, teachers and parents must collaborate actively to monitor students’ online activities, both to ensure safety and to promote responsible digital behavior. This finding is consistent with Wong et al. (2022), who stressed the moderating role of inclusive norms in minimizing online risks. Furthermore, the data showed that students from economically disadvantaged families often lacked adequate digital skills, requiring additional scaffolding such as tutorials or peer mentoring. Teachers’ role in providing this support is critical to reducing inequality in participation.

3.4.4 Evaluation and reflection

The final stage focuses on evaluating students’ engagement and achievements in Indonesian language competencies (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). In this study, teachers reported improvements in oral participation, writing fluency, and confidence when students were encouraged to use social media creatively (e.g., creating video summaries of texts). However, teachers also admitted that these observations were mostly qualitative and based on classroom monitoring, suggesting the need for further empirical measurement in future research. The evaluation stage also involves gathering feedback from students and parents, which provides a reflective loop to improve the integration of SMN in subsequent learning cycles. This aligns with Clarke & Braun (2013), who emphasize reflexivity as a key element of thematic analysis in educational contexts.

From a practical perspective, the SMN framework provides teachers with clear, actionable steps that directly address the opportunities and challenges observed in inclusive classrooms. By embedding structured planning, flexible implementation, collaborative monitoring, and continuous evaluation, the framework offers a pathway for teachers to leverage social media as a meaningful pedagogical tool rather than a source of distraction. From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes by conceptualizing SMN not merely as a digital platform, but as a pedagogical model for inclusivity. It highlights the dual function of social media as both a space for language learning and a medium that fosters equity through differentiated participation. This addresses the research gap identified in the introduction, as previous studies have examined social media for language learning in general ( Barrot, 2022; Valencia & Benavides, 2019), but few have explored its systematic application in inclusive Indonesian classrooms.

Finally, the triangulation of interviews and questionnaires reinforces the validity of this framework. Teachers’ narratives provided rich, contextualized evidence, while questionnaire data confirmed patterns across multiple schools and provinces. This consistency across sources demonstrates that the proposed SMN strategy is both evidence-based and contextually grounded, making it a valuable contribution to the field of inclusive education.