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To evaluate the influence of teachers’ EE pedagogical content knowledge on EE implementation in private preschools.

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What is the influence of teachers’ EE pedagogical content knowledge on the implementation of EE in private preschools?

This study employed a qualitative research design to explore preschool teachers’ competence in pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and its influence on the implementation of environmental education (EE) in private preschools in Bandar Buket Mahkota, Malaysia. Qualitative methods are particularly suited for understanding complex educational phenomena, as they allow for an in-depth examination of participants’ experiences, perceptions, and practices ( Lim, 2024). By utilizing semi-structured interviews and document analysis, this study aimed to uncover the nuances of how EE is integrated into early childhood education settings and how teachers’ PCK affects this integration.

The target population was those who teach and head private preschools in Bandar Buket Mahkota. This purposive sampling method was used to obtain participants who were familiar with and skilled in the field of early childhood education and environmental pedagogy. This type of non-random sampling was applied to ensure that the selected participants could provide deep, pertinent, and varied information on the research topic ( Ahmed, 2024). Ten teachers and one preschool head were willing to participate in the study, which provided a manageable but information-rich sample.

The participants of the study were 13 in total: 10 teachers and 3 preschool heads. This is the optimal sample size as per the qualitative research suggestions, which indicates that data saturation occurs with 10 to 15 participants when semi-structured interviews are administered ( Hennink & Kaiser, 2022). The study also attained information saturation, which implies that no new themes were developed using the data; hence, the sample size was sufficient to meet the research objectives.

Semi-structured interviews and document analyses were conducted for data collection. Semi-structured interviews provided flexibility to investigate the perceptions and experiences of the participants in the process of discussing the inclusion of EE in the curriculum and the correspondence of the content with the principle of PCK ( Shulman, 1987). The interview guide was structured in a way that would encourage the teachers to give in-depth answers regarding their knowledge and practices regarding EE. Document analysis was used to complement the interviews with further information and evidence of curriculum content and teaching methods.

The interview questions were discussed by specialists in early childhood education and environmental pedagogy to ensure the high validity of the tools. This professional validation process served to narrow down the questions and make them a good fit for the research goals. In addition, member checking followed the interviews, whereby participants went through and verified the quality of the transcribed information. This process made the findings credible and trustworthy ( McKim, 2023).

Qualitative research reliability refers to the consistency and dependability of data collection and analysis processes. To ensure reliability, the researcher used the same procedure as in the interviews and NVivo software to analyse the data. The functionality of NVivo in structuring and coding qualitative data allows for systematic analysis and the reduction of possible researcher bias ( Allsop et al., 2022). The fact that one researcher was used to collect and analyse the data also helped in consistency

Data collection involved semi-structured interviews with 10 teachers and one preschool head, each lasting approximately 60 minutes. The interviews were held at the participants’ respective preschools to provide a naturalistic setting, according to Souza et al. (2024). In addition to the interviews, relevant documents, such as curriculum guides, lesson plans, and teaching materials, were collected to provide a comprehensive understanding of EE implementation. Incentives were provided to the participants following the interviews as a token of appreciation for their time and insights.

The data and documents from the interviews were interpreted using thematic analysis. In this method, identification, analysis, and reporting of patterns (themes) in the data were performed ( Ahmed, et al., 2025). NVivo software was used to help in the coding process and perform cross-case analysis, where we could see common themes and variance among the cases. Thematic analysis is also useful in qualitative research because it offers a loose and comprehensive description of the data ( Lumivero, 2025). These steps were performed in succession, whereby the first step involved familiarising the participants with the data, the second step involved generating initial codes, the third step involved searching for themes, the fourth step involved reviewing the themes, the fifth step involved defining themes and giving them names, and the final step involved writing the report. For instance Figure 1 shows the sample of five hundred most coded words via NVivo 14 based on word frequency query results.

During the research study of how environmental education (EE) content is integrated into different subjects, teacher pedagogical content knowledge was evaluated in an overall manner. The research demonstrated how teachers interpreted EE topics in their workbooks, notes, methods, and teaching materials. This area was used to gauge the opinions and perceptions held by the teachers about how best to incorporate EE content with other subjects.

A representation of Environmental Education (EE) issues covers the science workbooks of Cases 1, 2, and 3, which can be well integrated with the National Primary School Curriculum (NPSC, p.100-103, SA3.0, p.117-119 KM5.0-6.0). Interestingly, the workbook explores a wide range of EE issues, including recycling, waste management (with a special focus on the blue waste bin to store paper materials and the red waste bin to clean toilets), the water cycle, and demonstrations on how to produce bubbles of water. The workbook explains what waste separation means, and the blue waste bin is used to separate paper, books, newspapers, magazines, and paper products. At the same time, the red waste bin is used for waste produced during toilet cleaning processes. The water cycle is explained to include the process whereby water is absorbed into the air, how it forms in clouds, how it condenses to make clouds heavier, and how it finally falls as rain. The workbook will also provide practical instructions on how to create water bubbles and address the water droplet phenomenon following rainfall.

The workbook discusses the natural environments of all animals (domestic, wild, and aquatic) as part of environmental awareness. It also includes the growth of plants, various plant components, various tree development stages, and the development of chickens. Moreover, it touches the beauty of flowers, the fluttering butterfly, and life within the oceanic and freshwater worlds. Seasons were also introduced as part of the environmental cycles, for example, winter, summer, autumn, and spring. Environmental stewardship encouragement is a golden thread that runs throughout the book. In the context of the necessity to love things around us, the content provokes students to save the beauty of nature and not destroy the environment carelessly. The subsequent sections discuss teachers’ views regarding EE topics, integration, and teaching strategy with reference to their recommendations given by in their workbooks.

In Case 1, teacher 1 (T1) stated that she was committed to incorporating Environmental Education (EE) into other educational subjects, such as science, especially in the teaching of Arabic and Jawi. The Malay language (Jawi) is written with the help of Arabic script and includes a variety of topics, including plants, clouds, and rivers. Regardless of this initiative, T1 complained about difficulties due to a language barrier that hindered learners’ understanding and use of environmental materials. T1 replied, “I believe in the incorporation of Environmental Education (EE) into other sciences, and especially science, to enhance the width of knowledge; however, I teach Arabic and Jawi. The Malay language, which uses the Arabic script, is Jawi. The used curriculum includes a wide range of topics, like the introduction of the plants, clouds, and rivers. Nonetheless, I face difficulties since there is a language barrier that makes students ineffective in comprehending and practicing the material” (Interview T1 Case 1).

In turn, Teacher 2 (T2) followed the approach of a strict emphasis on mathematics teaching with little application of EE concepts in the curriculum. The instructor follows explicitly defined textbooks, in which there is a distinct lack of environmental elements. T2 focused on basic counting rules, indicating a less integrative approach to environmental education in mathematics. She added that she only taught mathematics and that few EE concepts were incorporated in mathematics. “I purely follow the recommended textbooks, where such contents are not present and the focus is set on the basic counting rules” (Interview T2 Case 1).

Teacher 3 (T3), on the other hand, contested the necessity of separating EE and science. T3 combines ideas of the environment into both science and Bahasa Melayu. Other things such as recycling, knowledge of the colors of the recycle bin, recycling rainwater, healthy, balanced diet, and the five senses are discussed both inside and outside. Nonetheless, T3 stated his reservations on difficulty, mainly due to poor knowledge and the limitations of implementing activities beyond the classroom . “We will not need to distance EE and science since it remains in its infantile years, and thus, it is all about the fundamentals. There is no need to change, I teach both science and Bahasa Melayu. Some of the things I taught include recycling, color coding of the recycle bin, recycling rainwater, eating a healthy, balanced diet, and the use of the five senses, which include smell, touch, taste, and feel. Indoor and outdoor learning is involved. The challenges are not numerous as science deals with the environment itself and it is pleasant to students. They are not without their challenges, but their knowledge limits are the primary reason, since not everything can be done outside the classroom” (Interview T3 Case 1).

Similarly, Teacher 4 (T4) also stressed a holistic method by integrating environmental issues in different subjects. This project focused on aquatic animals in subjects such as language, math, English, Arabic, and science. The math component discusses the depth of the sea and sorts of fish and uses architectural ideas to measure and use them in a creative way. T4 believes that this multidisciplinary approach represents a belief in environmental education development based on the process of integrating it into different subjects. “The science topics in the project involve much more than the incorporation of different subjects. Indicatively, in one of the projects, the subject that is centered on aquatic animals incorporates such subjects as language, math, English, Arabic, and science. In the math bit, the students learn about issues such as the depth of the sea and fish varieties. The project entails applying the environmental expertise on various subjects, including the use of architectural concepts in math to measure and apply them in creative and other activities” (Interview T4 Case 1).

As can be seen in the interviews with teachers (T5, T6, T7, and T8) in Case 2, a common understanding of the value of EE in instilling a sense of responsibility towards nature among students can be observed. The same workbook was used for Case 2. Although a special handbook on EE does not exist, teachers have adopted new environmental concepts in existing subjects. Teacher 5, in charge of science and social studies, admitted that there is little coverage of EE in the curriculum. Nevertheless, T5 believes that EE can be implemented through the incorporation of other issues, such as waste management through recycling and reuse. T5 believes that types of recyclable materials should have certain colors attached, and the process will become practical to students. She replied, “We have, at most, a few topics in some of the science and social studies textbooks and workbooks. EE has little coverage in the science and social studies curriculum. Children must be taught about EE because they will know how to cut down waste, like recycling paper and using water bottles as flower pots. I write about science and social issues, with a focus on reuse and recycling. To illustrate, I teach that green is glass, blue is paper, and brown is aluminum. In my opinion, it is worth incorporating environmental education since it will enable children to venture into activities such as planting and recycling that are closely connected to EE” (Interview T5 Case 2).

Similarly, Teacher 6, who taught mathematics and Bahasa Malaysia, stressed that EE should be connected with other subjects. It focuses on the development of a full grasp of environmental problems, especially the importance of recycling plastics. T6 indicated that she would be interested in teaching EE in the future. “I am a teacher of mathematics and Bahasa Melayu. I think students should take care of nature, and in particular, they should know about the significance of plastic recycling. Environmental Education (EE) ought to be linked to the rest of the subjects to give students a more comprehensive knowledge and allow them to transfer ideas gained in science to other fields. I would like to educate children better on the environment in the future” (Interview T6, Case 2).

Teacher 7 showed interest in EE in the aspect of Basa Jawi, but stated that she did not see the connection between theoretical learning and practical application. T7 believes that it can be more hands-on in their teaching to children regarding the environment, not only seed planting and recycling practices, but also effective use of this knowledge in the daily lives of children. “I teach Basa Jawi, and I am very convinced that Environmental Education (EE) is essential to children. As they are introduced to it, it tends to seem like the introduction of seeds and a practice of recycling, with minimal practical application of EE. I am eager to educate children more about the environment in which we live” (Interview T7, Case 2).

Teacher 8, who is a new teacher in the teaching profession, teaches basic subjects such as ABC, numbers, colors, and animals, and believes that children should be taught plastic use and recycling. T8 is of the view that there is a need for a pragmatic approach to EE in outdoor activities to make learning fun among young students. I am instructing simple ABC, numbers, colors, and animals. “Even though I am new to this area, I have heard of Environmental Education (EE), which deals with recycling and the correct use of plastic, including using plastic to shop. Kids should also know how to recycle plastic instead of throwing it in the dustbin because they usually litter the environment. I would also like to educate children concerning EE through outdoor activities so that the learning process is more pleasant to them” (Interview T8 Case 2).

An interview passage in Case 3 shows that two teachers demonstrated the need to introduce EE in their own subjects: mathematics and language teaching. T9, a mathematics teacher, was the first teacher to mention recycling as an alternative educational way to learn mathematical principles. T9 acknowledges the importance of incorporating environmental consciousness into her pedagogical approach. Through the involvement of students in counting objects in the process of recycling, she offers a practical method of teaching students mathematical ideas and, at the same time, students participate in the creation of a clean environment. T9 said, “I am a teacher of mathematics, and I have heard about such a thing as Environmental Education (EE). I realized the importance of recycling since I was young in my academic life. In the recycling process, we consider mathematical concepts when involving the students in activities like counting items. This will offer a practical and practical method to the students in understanding mathematical concepts whilst they will be actively involved in the conservation of the environment. I am interested in increasing the knowledge of my students on issues concerning the environment” (Interview T9 Case 3).

The second teacher, T10, on the other hand, is a specialist in Bahasa English (BI) and Bahasa Arabic (BA). She considers the impact of recycling experiences during her college life and has taken the initiative to apply practical lessons. The method used by T10 would be to get the students to throw or put plastic bottles into specific places in the recycling bin after use. She is convinced that these practical experiences are very important for instilling environmental awareness among students. T10 describes stating, “how I teach in English and Arabic: Bahasa English (BI) and Bahasa Arabic (BA) courses. Being a relatively new teacher in the field of language teaching, in my college days, things such as recycling were presented to me. Going forward, I have embarked on practical lessons in which students would take the bottled water, after which they will learn to discard the plastics in specific parts of the recycling section. In my opinion, such practical experience is important to develop environmental responsibility in students” (Interview T10 Case 3).

HoP1 reflects the importance of integrating EE into other subjects. She underlines that “Integrating EE is important because it would allow children to explore more in-depth issues like planting, recycling, and other aspects associated with EE” (Interview HoP, Case 1). HoP2 expounds on how different subjects, such as language, math, English, Arabic, and science, can be integrated with EE concepts. She says that, “The project combines all the subjects in a single one, where the themes include aquatic animals. It is a natural combination of language, math, English, Arabic and science. As an example, a mathematical element could be a visit to the various species of fishes found in the deep sea” (Interview HoP, Case 2). Moreover, HoP3 proposes the changes that imply the use of recycling boxes of different items, not only the knowledge about tree planting, to simplify the implementation in the school environment. She says, “In case of any change it would involve the introduction of recycling boxes of different things not tree planting only. In this manner, children get to know what to recycle and to apply it at school” (Interview HoP, Case 3).

Result across case analysis on teachers’ competence in EE pedagogical content knowledge

These three cases demonstrate an impressive continuum of the degree of environmental education (EE) pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). As seen in Case 1, although teachers have a wide array of approaches, some of the challenges they face include language barriers, a lack of PCK, and outdoor limitations. Some teachers demonstrate an interest in combining EE with other subjects, but are challenged by setbacks that impede successful execution. On the other hand, Case 2 shows that teachers recognize the significance of EE in fostering environmental responsibility, and they are skillful in one way or another in incorporating EE issues within teaching practice. Nevertheless, gaps remain, especially in the areas of closing the gap between theoretical knowledge and practice. On the other hand, in Case 3, both teachers showed respectable scores in PCK, successfully incorporating EE into their respective disciplines and using hands-on experience to allow students to get engaged and acquire knowledge. Their interdisciplinary links and pragmatic strategies demonstrate their superior knowledge of EE integration, which is in line with the curriculum standards.

Hence, Table 1 shows that the levels of PCK among teachers in both cases vary in terms of EE topics taught, EE implementation practice, and challenges when implementing EE, but there are themes and issues common between them. In all cases, the teachers understood the value of using EE within their teaching practices, although their approaches and effectiveness differed. The challenges identified in Case 1 included a language barrier and PCK deficiency, meaning that additional support and professional development are necessary. Case 2 provides an example of shared awareness of the significance of EE but also finds loopholes between theory and practice. Case 3 is the most outstanding example of the practice of PCK, as the teachers successfully utilized EE in their classrooms due to interdisciplinary links and the experiences they gained. Overall, these examples suggest that continuous support and professional growth of teachers can improve their PCK in EE and bring environmental ideas into their instruction in various disciplines.

The results of this research reveal that the efficient implementation of environmental education in preschools relies heavily on building teacher capacity. To do this, according to Figure 2, systematic and sustained professional development programs with the objective of enabling educators with knowledge and teaching skills that enable them to teach environmental topics in their classrooms with confidence are urgently needed. This training must be practical, hands-on, and aimed at ensuring that teachers develop age-related lessons, experiential learning activities, and sustainability values for young learners. Along with the training of teachers, there is a need for clarity in the goals of the curriculum and systematic instruction according to Figure 2. Preschool curricula must be explicit in embedding environmental education with clearly defined learning outcomes, lesson plans, and instructional materials to assist teachers in orienting content to pedagogical intentions. In the case of explicit objectives, teachers can engage in sustainability practices more frequently, thus making environmental topics not only unaddressed but also accidental.

The key to successful implementation is resources and fair access as highlighted in Figure 2. The tools, materials, and infrastructure necessary to facilitate experiential learning should be provided in preschools, including in school gardens, recycling stations, and outdoor learning areas. Policymakers and school administrators, in an effort to solve inequalities, must focus on the equal distribution of resources so that urban and rural preschools are given equal opportunities to access quality environmental education. Networks between schools and communities can also be collaboratively used to increase the availability of resources and foster innovation in environmental projects. Another recommendation in Figure 2 is to establish strong feedback and evaluation systems. Observing classrooms, surveying teachers, or discussing their experience with them should be regular practices that help to evaluate the sufficiency of resources, identify their weaknesses, and suggest ways to address them. They can be embedded in such evaluation processes so that the environmental education process remains dynamic, responsive, and compatible with the needs of the teachers, as well as with the stages of child development.

Finally, the research highlights the significance of multi-stakeholder partnerships in policy and practice. Educational authorities, school leadership, curriculum experts, and preschool teachers should collaborate in defining priorities, developing strategies, and assessing the results. Setting up advisory councils or joint committees in which teachers are involved in decision-making will assist in ensuring that policies are realistic, culturally oriented, and classroom oriented. With the long-term cooperation of policymakers and educators with communities, environmental education in preschools will become more inclusive, coherent, and transformative.

The pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) model used by Shulman to explain the link between teacher knowledge and practice of environmental education (EE) can be used to understand why differences in the knowledge of teachers and their practice of environmental education (EE) has a strong influence on preschool practice; teachers may have a lot of content knowledge but still fail to represent, sequence, and scaffold environmental education concepts (EE) in developmentally appropriate ways. Consistent with this, research on preschools also reveals that greater PCK is associated with teachers’ willingness and ability to diagnose the ideas of children and with scaffolding learning capacities that are key when mapping EE goals into age-relevant activities ( Lazzara et al., 2023). Furthermore, systematic reviews of early childhood EE indicate that programs yield the strongest cognitive, affective, and behavioural outcomes in situations where teachers integrate strong subject knowledge with purposeful pedagogies, which justifies the argument that reinforcing the transformational aspects of PCK (representation, diagnosis, and pedagogical design) is at the heart of effective EE in preschools ( Ardoin and Bowers, 2020). Thus, in theory, Shulman’s PCK can be extended to EE by stating the topic-specific representations and scaffolding moves required by teachers when young children learn about the environment (e.g., simplified models, story-based analogies, and embodied activities).

The Palmer model of education about, in/through, and the environment (tree model) adds to and builds upon PCK by explaining the dimensions of teacher knowledge and practice that are of interest. In particular, the model suggests that the PCK of EE should encompass (a) conceptual representations of the knowledge about, (b) practical design skills of the knowledge in/through, (outdoor design, loose parts, project cycles), and (c) facilitation skills to foster agency and stewardship of the goals. This synthesis is supported by empirical evidence that research on nature-rich, experience-based interventions demonstrate higher affective and pro-environmental effects when teachers actively plan and scaffold in-context learning. Malaysian studies indicate that outdoor/play-based environments are a strong reinforcer of preschool learning processes, highlighting that experience design proficiency is an empirical and requisite aspect of Environmental-PCK ( Li et al., 2024; Sia et al., 2023; Ardoin and Bowers, 2020). Therefore, we suggest that an Environment PCK construct in early-childhood studies and teacher education should be able to bundle content knowledge, representational/diagnostic skills, experiential design competence, and affective/ethical facilitation, offering a transparent theoretical goal for measurement, professional development, and curriculum design.

This study has some limitations. A major limitation is that the relatively small sample size was chosen because it included ten teachers and three preschool headteachers in three private preschools. Although purposive sampling facilitated the gathering of rich and detailed information on the relationship between environmental education (EE) pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and classroom practice by teachers, it also inevitably limited the generalization of the results to other preschool settings. Moreover, the research was based mainly on qualitative data collected through interviews and document analysis. Although this methodology was helpful in the collection of the lived experiences of the participants, it also brought a certain level of subjectivity because it relied on self-reports of the participants and the interpretation of the researcher. This complicates replication or verification using quantitative methods and lowers the external validity of the results in other preschool settings or cultures. In addition, emphasis on PCK might not be sufficient to elucidate all the knowledge and skills that teachers require to effectively use EE, thus limiting the depth of information.

Considering these limitations, several research directions are suggested. First, future studies need to have a wider area of investigation with a larger and more varied sample, including both public and private preschools. This would provide a better representative picture of how EE is incorporated into the context of early childhood education in Malaysia. In addition, mixed-method methods that would integrate the results of qualitative analysis with the results of quantitative data analysis are likely to increase the validity and generalizability of the results and provide a more comprehensive view. The particular obstacles teachers face in implementing EE, such as, lack of content knowledge, gaps in curriculum, lack of resources, and institutional support, should also be studied, and the effect of professional development programs on overcoming them should also be examined. Finally, cross-regional/country comparisons would produce meaningful information on cultural and system-wide factors that may affect EE integration, thus providing broader implications for policymakers, curriculum developers, and practitioners keen to enhance EE in preschool education.