Inclusion criteria were: •

empirical studies

Exclusion criteria were: •

theoretical articles or essays

Theoretical or reflective texts were excluded, which reduced the number of documents to a total of 14 ( Rivera-Lozada et al., 2025; Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, 2018).

The data extraction was conducted independently by the same two reviewers utilizing a structured template designed to capture key information from each study. This included the year of publication, the country or region of focus, the methodological approach employed, sample characteristics, the type of data used (fieldwork or secondary), and the main findings concerning the manifestations, causes, consequences and mitigation strategies of gender disparities. The extracted information was subsequently cross-checked, and any discrepancies were resolved through discussion until a consensus was reached.

Two reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts. Full texts were then assessed according to the eligibility criteria. Disagreements were resolved through discussion until consensus was reached.

Because the included studies were heterogeneous in design (quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods), and the purpose of this review was to provide a descriptive and narrative synthesis rather than a comparative assessment, no formal critical appraisal tool was applied. Instead, the methodological characteristics and limitations reported by each study were considered qualitatively to contextualize the interpretation of findings. No studies were excluded on the basis of methodological quality.

A meta-analysis was not feasible due to heterogeneity in research designs, populations and measured outcomes. A narrative synthesis was therefore conducted, and studies were grouped into three analytical categories: i.

Manifestations of gender digital divides

Of the list of the 14 documents selected, 14%, 29%, 7%, 21% and 29% correspond to publications in the years 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023 and 2024, respectively. In addition, 43% include statistical data through surveys and/or interviews resulting from field work and the remaining 57% use data from national and international secondary database sources ( Table 1).

Finally, the selected articles are concentrated in the African, American, European and Asian continents, as well as in the global category with percentages of 7%, 14%, 14%, 36% and 29%, respectively ( Figure 2) in countries such as Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Spain, Italy, India, Pakistan, Jordan and Serbia.

In general, in the so-called “developing” countries, it is possible to detect the existence of a persistent gap in Internet access between men and women ( Banović, 2024) in different contexts. For instance, in Serbia during 2022, 85.9% of men used the internet compared to 81.2% of women ( Banović, 2024); in Peru, in contrast, usage rate was 40.25% in men and 34.85% in women ( Calatayud et al., 2023). This percentage is more dramatic in cases such as India, where women are 20% less likely to have access to mobile telephony, only 63% of women compared to 79% of men ( Scott et al., 2021).

Studies identify two distinct dimensions of digital divides: everyday use and learning ( Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021). Existing research indicates that disparities in opportunities to access ICT (Information and Communication Technology) resources and develop digital skills can negatively affect student learning and amplify social inequalities ( Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021; Orkoh & Viviers, 2021; Ortiz and Jeri, 2023; Campos & Scherer, 2024).

Internet penetration levels are positively correlated with the extent of the digital gender gap. There is a pronounced digital gender gap between men and women in Africa, in the sub-Saharan area ( Kashyap et al., 2020) evident in the disparity of usage of Google and Facebook platforms; a similar study for 186 countries reveals that Facebook’s API (Application Programming Interface) data indicate a high gender ¹ index concentrated in certain regions, especially Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, and West Asia ( Wang & Lin, 2024). Similarly, African companies undergoing digital transformation are less likely to have their own website or a broadband connection when the management of these organizations is run solely by women, compared to counterparts in other regions with similar economic conditions ( Orkoh & Viviers, 2021).

Wang & Lin (2024) demonstrated spatial clustering in the gender digital divide, meaning that countries with higher or lower gender indices tend to be geographically close to each other. These findings confirm that this gap is more pronounced in developing and least developed regions and less developed countries, especially in regions such as Africa, Central Asia, and South Asia.

In Peru, the gender digital divide widened during the COVID-19 pandemic due to increased difficulties in internet access among women, which negatively affected many of them economically due to a decrease in their online sales ( Calatayud et al., 2023). A study on Google and Facebook usage trends that sought to capture insight into at least 80% of global variations in digital gender gaps concluded that countries with high internet penetration rates also have greater gender equality in their use, while countries with lower unemployment rates tend to have greater equality, which is related to the fact that higher or lower incomes can decrease or increase the gap respectively ( Kashyap et al., 2020; Prabhu et al., 2022).

In the case of India, the use of cell phones corresponds to mothers with certain social expectations about the manifestation of their personal wishes, in the sense of expecting an exclusive use to call close relatives; additionally, they also face technical barriers, especially about the knowledge needed to use the phones ( Scott et al., 2021).

This digital divide is not always so evident in all contexts; a study with hospitality students, according to the DigiComp theoretical framework (information, communication, content creation, security, problem solving), found that this gap is closing, especially in access to technology. However, it is still very much present in the digital competence needed to take advantage of it, where men maintain the advantage over women ( Prabhu et al., 2022).

In the labor context, digital divides impact other inequalities. Women engaged in handicrafts in the Peruvian province of Puno are less likely to have access to the internet than men and use it less frequently. Researchers find the determinants of this disparity in education levels, the cost of cell phone plans and the hiatus between generations, with older women having the least access ( Calatayud et al., 2023).

As the main hypothesis of their research, VIollaz & Winkler (2020) theorized that an increase in Internet access would have a positive effect on women’s labor market participation, especially in MENA countries (Middle East and North Africa). They found that access to the Internet significantly increases women’s labor participation, despite having no effect on men. However, this access only improves the quality of employment for more educated and older women. In addition, Internet access helps them to enter the labor market, but does not always translate into paid work. Despite this, the trend indicates that there is a relationship between access to the network and a negative perception of domestic abuse, indicating that the reduction of the digital divide contributes directly to female empowerment.

Notably, the reduction of gender gaps in the labor market is associated with a decrease in the severity of biased social norms that are related to women’s ability to make decisions, access to economic resources to cover household expenses, the ability to save and own valuable assets such as jewelry or land, the presence of domestic violence by husbands, women’s fear of expressing disagreements with their husbands or other men in the household, and their level of agreement with statements related to female empowerment ( Viollaz & Winkler, 2020).

The use of government services is related to access to technology, so digital gender gaps directly affect the quantity and quality that women receive from these ( Macaya et al., 2021). The use of online government in Brazil depends directly on the user’s gender; in 2019 37% of men paid their taxes through the internet, compared to 19% of women ( Macaya et al., 2021). The digital divide also directly affects women’s political participation ( Scott et al., 2021), in addition to the disadvantage they have compared to men in accessing online banking services and digital applications, especially in India ( Gupta & Kiran, 2024).

Migrant women, specifically Peruvian women in Spain and Italy, have greater difficulties in adapting to the new country because of the digital divide, since they are more likely to get a precarious job if they do not have access to the Internet ( Ortiz & Jeri, 2023); on the other hand, it also allows them to continue their academic and work training because they have access to courses and technical knowledge through the use of technological devices.

Several studies list social norms imposed on women as a key factor in understanding the digital divide ( Scott et al., 2021; Macaya et al., 2021; Orkoh & Viviers, 2021; VIollaz & Winkler, 2020; Gupta & Kiran, 2024) that respond to a patriarchal society ( Ortiz and Jeri, 2023; Barra et al., 2024). Women’s economic dependence in countries such as India and negative perceptions about women’s leisure time ( Scott et al., 2021) contribute to digital gender gaps. In Pakistan, women tend to justify the use of technology due to social pressure and the “multitasking whirpool” effect, the social phenomenon that assigns the responsibility of carrying out tasks in very different domains, such as domestic and family duties or undefined jobs where they have no voice, to women; in contrast, men seek to demonstrate their initiative and professional engagement ( Barra et al., 2024).

Lack of technical training ( Scott et al., 2021; Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021; Ortiz & Jeri, 2023; Gupta & Kiran, 2024) or self-perceived inadequacy or “technophobia” ( Scott et al., 2021; Prabhu et al., 2022; Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021; VIollaz &Winkler, 2020; Campos and Scherer, 2024; Gupta & Kiran, 2024) are also reasons why a percentage of the female population does not access digital technology. Along these lines, gender attitude towards technology plays a key role in the germ of the gender digital divide, except for certain specific geographic variations, boys generally have more positive attitudes towards technology, higher self-efficacy and broader interest in technology-related tasks compared to girls ( Orkoh & Viviers, 2021; Campos and Scherer, 2024). In contrast to these studies, before singling out women, it is necessary to think about the social supports to reverse these asymmetries and for them to find the motivation to access these technologies as well as the same benefits perceived by men ( Barra et al., 2024).

A disparity has been demonstrated across countries in ICT skills between men and women over the last ten years ( Macaya et al., 2021; Orkoh and Viviers, 2021; Banović, 2024; Barra et al., 2024), a period of time defined by an accelerated digitization of countries and their households but not reflected in closures of gender gaps ( Banović, 2024).

Along the same lines, it is possible to dimension three levels in the analysis of the manifestation of the digital divide. The first level analyzes differences in access to technologies such as computers and the Internet, both at home and at school, along with students’ attitudes towards technology, interest, confidence and perceptions; the second level examines inequalities in the use of digital technologies, including the skills and knowledge needed to manage them effectively and the ability to search for information or solve problems using digital tools; finally, the third level addresses the outcomes derived from the use of ICT, such as the impact on students’ academic performance and future opportunities ( Campos & Scherer, 2024).

The gender digital divide in developing countries is explained by low educational levels and low technological training among women ( Wang & Lin, 2024). Men have higher priority in accessing technological resources, which combined with educational constraints, traditions, culture and societal norms, exacerbates gender inequalities in the digital realm and other social inequalities derived from the above ( Ortiz & Jeri, 2023; Macaya et al., 2021; Orkoh & Viviers, 2021; Campos & Scherer, 2024; Barra et al., 2024).

When considering both economic and cultural variables in the analytical models, economic variables, such as GDP per capita and HDI (Human Development Index) turn out to be more determinant in predicting gender gaps in Internet use than cultural factors, such as Hofstede’s dimensions, considered in previous studies. This indicates that a country’s economic development has a more significant impact on reducing gender inequality in the digital realm than cultural aspects ( Kashyap et al., 2020). This result is consistent with the assumption that the level of socioeconomic development of a country and the existing gender inequality influence the relationship between gender and digital skills even when factors such as attitude towards ICT and access to these technologies, reflected in the everyday life of individuals, are taken into account, women tend to go through greater economic problems than men ( Ortiz & Jeri, 2023; Campos & Scherer, 2024; Gupta & Kiran, 2024).

The Peruvian context made it possible to identify four causes of such inequality: i) age because older women artisans use the mobile Internet less frequently ( Calatayud et al., 2023); ii) education, as fewer years of education are associated with less mobile Internet use ( Macaya et al., 2021); iii) residence because women living in rural areas have less access to and use of the mobile Internet; and iv) connectivity, as having limited mobile Internet service reduces the frequency of use.

Finally, security is an important cause, as women suffer more online harassment than men, which limits their access and perverts the democratization of online services. These are compelling reasons for the inclusion of a gender perspective in public policies aimed at reducing the digital divide ( Macaya et al., 2021).

It is clear that the different biases and social norms that continue to restrict the technological and digital world to the male environment must be addressed in a way that combats the different social and cultural causes that restrict women ( Scott et al., 2021; Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021; Macaya et al., 2021; Barra et al., 2024).

It is crucial to implement public policies and educational programs of digital inclusion to ICTs to reduce this gap ( Scott et al., 2021; Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021; Macaya et al., 2021; Prabhu et al., 2022; Calatayud et al., 2023; Barra et al., 2024), promoting gender equality in access to ICTs ( Ortiz and Jeri, 2023; Campos and Scherer, 2024), the use of digital technologies for business ( Orkoh and Viviers, 2021) and the creation of more accessible and user-friendly applications in the banking system ( Gupta and Kiran, 2024), all of which would also imply better Internet infrastructure in rural areas ( Calatayud et al., 2023).

It is necessary to involve women in the planning of the technological inclusion process to gather their requirements and incorporate effective actions as well as to establish safe spaces for them on the Internet ( Macaya et al., 2021), an important action for the migrant population ( Ortiz & Jeri, 2023) that can be done in collaborative spaces through social networks that respect gender equality ( Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021).

Using the Internet’s own data to support possible policies and courses of action to bridge the digital information divide can also be used for monitoring ( Kashyap et al., 2020). Along the same lines, expanding access to the Internet is a key strategy to decrease gender inequalities in labor participation and address the limitations women face in accessing information ( VIollaz & Winkler, 2020). In this perspective, increasing the use of submarine cabling can ensure greater global access to the Internet ( Wang & Lin, 2024).

Regarding courses of action on the three levels of analysis of the gap announced above, the individual treatment of any one of them leaves out the rest, making any comprehensive solution impossible ( Campos and Scherer, 2024). In this regard, educational policies in Norway, Denmark and Finland have reduced gender inequalities through inclusive curricula, teacher training and specific programs. These countries guarantee equal access to technological resources and promote the participation of girls in ICT education, which explains the smaller gender gaps in digital skills, although the authors recommend further research to adapt these policies to other regions ( Campos & Scherer, 2024).

In any case, it is essential to ensure equitable access to ICTs for women ( Pérez-Escoda et al., 2021; Macaya et al., 2021; Orkoh & Viviers, 2021; Campos & Scherer, 2024). To this end, Pérez-Escoda et al. (2021) believe UNESCO should be followed and women should be supported in the areas of security, digital literacy, and trust. For example, Scott et al. (2021), on their own, advocate policies for access to technology-competent cell phones for women in India.

Campos and Scherer (2024) propose that the use of advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning offer the possibility of designing personalized educational experiences that respond to the individual needs of students, to generate a more positive and motivating perception towards technology, which is essential in an increasingly digitized world.

These and other authors mention as a possibility to work on changing the perception that women and men, as well as boys and girls, have about technology, prejudices and paths related to tasks involving ICTs ( Campos & Scherer, 2024; Macaya et al., 2021), to ensure that more women decide to access related careers and the rest of society does not exclude them from the dissemination of information about digital platforms and applications.