F1000Research F1000Research 2046-1402 F1000 Research Limited London, UK 10.12688/f1000research.159046.2 Research Article Articles Factors Influencing Food Safety and Hygiene Practices among Food Vendors in the Bibiani-Anwhiaso-Bekwai Municipality.

[version 2; peer review: 1 approved with reservations]

 Besseah Yeboah Eric Conceptualization Data Curation Formal Analysis Writing – Original Draft Preparation Writing – Review & Editing https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0206-7682 a 1 Nseebi Acquah Eric Conceptualization Data Curation 1 Adu-Amankwaa William Conceptualization Writing – Review & Editing 1 Twum Peter Formal Analysis Methodology Supervision Writing – Original Draft Preparation Writing – Review & Editing 2 Eshun Eric Data Curation Formal Analysis Writing – Review & Editing 1 Ofosua Asantewaa Regina Data Curation Formal Analysis 3 Ziema Thomas Data Curation Formal Analysis 1 Department of Public Health Nursing, College of Health Sciences, Bibiani, Ghana Department of Health Policy, Management and Economics, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana Department of Midwifery, College of Health Sciences, Bibiani, Ghana besyeboah1@gmail.com

No competing interests were disclosed.

 13 1 2026 2025 14 219 30 12 2025 Copyright: © 2026 Besseah Yeboah E et al. 2026 This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Background

Food safety is a major public health concern, particularly in developing countries where inadequate hygiene practices among street food vendors contribute to foodborne illnesses. In Ghana, street-vended foods remain a common source of meals for many households, necessitating regular assessment of vendors’ food hygiene and safety practices.

 Objective

This study assessed food hygiene and safety practices among street food vendors in the Bibiani–Anhwiaso–Bekwai Municipality of the Western North Region of Ghana.

 Methods

A descriptive cross-sectional study design was employed involving 152 street food vendors selected through purposive and simple random sampling techniques. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and observational checklists. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS version 15. Descriptive statistics summarized socio-demographic characteristics and hygiene practices. Chi-square tests were used to examine associations between socio-demographic factors and hygiene practices, while binary logistic regression identified predictors of good food hygiene and safety practices.

 Results

Most vendors were female (93.4%) and married (61.8%). Awareness of food hygiene was high (92.1%). Only 56.6% of vendors had undergone medical screening, 53.3% had received food hygiene training, and 53.9% had been inspected within the past six months. Observational findings indicated that while most vendors washed foodstuffs before cooking (86.2%) and maintained clean surroundings (84.2%), some did not use aprons or hair coverings (17.8%), operated in unhygienic environments (21.7%), or lacked valid medical certificates (27.0%). Significant associations were found between hygiene practices and educational level, prior food hygiene training, and municipal health inspections (p < 0.05). Logistic regression analysis showed that food hygiene training and regular inspections significantly increased the likelihood of practicing safe food handling.

 Conclusion

Despite high awareness of food hygiene, adherence to recommended hygiene and safety practices among street food vendors remains suboptimal. Strengthening food hygiene training, enhancing regulatory enforcement, and improving environmental sanitation are essential to improve food safety and protect public health.

 Recommendation

The government of Ghana and MMDAs should establish the pre-requisite standard operating procedures for all institutions undertaking hospitality regarding food safety and hygiene.

 Food Safety Food Hygiene food vendors The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work. Amendments from Version 1

The new version of this article has been improved in several areas, including.  --A detailed explanation of how the random selection was carried out within each stratum and an explanation of how the food vendor population was estimated. - There is also an explanation of how the translation of questionnaires into local languages was done. These include who performed the translation, whether back translation was used, and discussion of potential cultural or linguistic nuances, which would increase transparency and replicability. - Additionally, details regarding the parameters used in the observation checklist and how inter- observer reliability was ensured have been provided. - Details on how the data were coded using STATA have been provided, and a codebook has been published at figshare. - A chi-square test to determine the association between handwashing with soap and good hygiene practice, and a logistic regression analysis of predictors of good hygiene practices have been added. - We have further elaborated on the ethical considerations of the study, specifically on informed consent procedures and how participant confidentiality was ensured. --Recommendations have been expanded to include practical implications.

 Introduction

Foodborne infections have become more prevalent globally over time, negatively affecting the health and economic wellbeing of both developing and developed nations. In many parts of the world, a serious public health issue is the lack of food safety regulations. Globally, approximately 60% of the diseases are caused by foodborne infections. 1, 2

Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that all food handlers in food service facilities accept hygienic practices concerning food safety. The WHO also recommends the following measures to ensure a hygienic environment for safe food preparation and service: adequate drainage and waste disposal systems in facilities; adequate supply of potable water and the construction of drainage systems that safeguard and avoid contamination of potable water; and washing and sanitizing all surfaces and equipment used for preparation of food. 2, 3 The standard requires that process control requirements be satisfied at each step of the food-handling process (receipt, storage, processing, display, packaging, distribution, disposal, and food recall). Consequently, the key practices for ensuring food safety are controlling time and temperature, practicing good personal hygiene, preventing cross-contamination, and purchasing food supplies from approved dealers. To focus on these areas, there is a need to follow the established standard operation procedures. 4, 5

According to Abdi et al., in their study conducted in 2020, food hygiene standards are worse in African nations, as a study in Addis Ababa established that only 50% of food handlers had maintained a good level of hygiene. 6 Several risk factors, such as inappropriate time intervals, unsuitable temperature, weather conditions, unhygienic activities, unacceptable handling of foods, food from insecure origins, impoverished self-cleanliness, improper cleaning of cooking materials, use of untreated water, and improper food storage have been attributed to the causes of foodborne diseases (FBDs). Furthermore, the neglect of hygienic measures by food handlers has been implicated as an enabler for the spread of pathogenic microorganisms and the cause of infections among consumers. 7, 8

In Ghana, Food poisoning occurs in individual homes and commercial and institutional catering sites. Commercial catering includes hotels, restaurants, finished products from retailers and food vendors. Institutional catering includes schools, hospitals, daycare centers, prisons, and industry-staff kitchens. Restaurants and individual food vendors have been identified as sources of foodborne disease. 9, 10

There are laws and regulations that local governments use when necessary to restrict the number of quick-serve restaurants or other establishments that sell primarily unhealthy foods in a community, and to promote the presence of establishments that sell fresh produce and other healthy options in Ghana. It is therefore prudent that every restaurant or food vending owner abides by all the rules and regulations spelled out by the local governments. 11

In contrast, most food vendors in the Bibiani Municipality contaminated foods through improper processing, preservation, and services, such as improper refrigeration, prolonged handling, and inadequate reheating of cooked food. 12 Most food vendors along the streets and markets of Bibiani do not adhere to the food hygiene practices. Even more concerning is the fact that food vendors frequently violate the most basic sanitary and hygienic standards for food safety on the streets of Bibiani municipality. Poor food hygiene practices can cause foodborne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and even death. Therefore, this study aimed to ascertain the factors that influence food safety and hygiene practices among food vendors in the Bibiani Municipality.

 Methods Study design

This cross-sectional study was conducted among street food vendors on the main streets and markets of the Bibiani-Anwhiaso-Bekwai Municipality. This design may be useful for this study by allowing participants to be observed in a natural and unchanged environment at a particular time.

 Sampling and sampling techniques

A quota sampling technique was employed to select 152 respondents for the study. The Municipality was stratified into three groups: Bibiani, Anwhiaso, and Bekwai. The proportion of each subdistrict in the municipality was based on the population size of the subdistricts. The estimated population of food vendors, 152, was divided among the three sub-districts Bibiani, 68 (45%); Anwhiaso, 31 (20%); and Bekwai, 53 (35%). A simple random sampling method was employed to select the population of interest for interviews within each stratum. An updated list of all registered and known food vendors in each sub-district was obtained from the Municipal Environmental Health Unit and served as the sampling frame. Each vendor on the list was assigned a unique identification number. The actual selection of respondents within each stratum was carried out using the lottery method to ensure that every vendor had an equal chance of being selected. In this process, the identification numbers were written on uniform slips of paper, which were then folded and thoroughly mixed in a container. The required number of slips, corresponding to the quota for each sub-district, was drawn one at a time by the research team. If a selected vendor was unavailable after several attempts or declined participation, an additional slip was randomly drawn from the remaining pool to replace the respondent. This procedure maintained both randomness and representativeness within each stratum.

 Sample size determination

The target population for this study comprised food vendors operating within the Bibiani-Anhwiaso-Bekwai Municipality. According to secondary data obtained from the Municipal Environmental Health Unit and the Municipal Assembly’s annual economic activity records, food vendors constitute approximately 8–12% of the informal sector operators in the municipality. For the purpose of this study, a midpoint estimate of 10% of the economically active population was adopted as a reasonable and representative proportion. This estimate was further corroborated through consultations with key informants, specifically Environmental Health Officers who routinely inspect and monitor food vendors. Although not a census figure, this triangulated estimate provides a practical and evidence-based foundation for approximating the population size of food vendors.

The sample size was determined by Cochran’s formula. A 95% confidence interval was used, allowing a margin of error of 5%. n = Z 2 p ( 1 − p ) d 2

Where n = required sample size

Z = 95% confidence level of standard value of 1.96 from statistical table

P = Estimated proportion of food vendors in Bibiani Municipality (i.e., 0.1%).

d = margin error of 5% (0.05)

Therefore, n = 1.96 ² × 0.1 ( 1 – 0.1 ) ( 0.05 ) 2 = 138.298 n = 138

To deal with the expected refusals and unavailability of participants to respond to the questionnaires, a 10% adjustment was made. Hence, a minimum sample size of 152 respondents was used in the study to deal with the attrition rate of respondents.

Therefore, the sample size used for this study is 152.

 Data collection and analysis

The data were collected using a questionnaire and an observational checklist.

Questionnaire

The questionnaire was based primarily on the objectives of the study. The questionnaire was divided into four (4) sections namely; section A, demographic data; section B, food storage practices; section C, hygienic practices; and section D, food preparation practices. This instrument was selected because it allowed respondents to provide definite and clear responses to the study.

The questions were explained in the local languages (Sefwi and Twi) to respondents who could not read and write. The translation of the questionnaire into the local languages (Sefwi and Twi) followed a structured process to ensure clarity, accuracy, and cultural appropriateness. The initial translation was carried out by two bilingual research assistants who were fluent in both English and the respective local languages. To enhance the reliability of the translation, a back-translation procedure was conducted: a different bilingual individual translated the locally translated version back into English. The original and back-translated English versions were then compared to identify and correct any inconsistencies or loss of meaning.

Additionally, cultural and linguistic nuances were considered during the translation process to ensure that all items were contextually appropriate and easily understood by respondents. Any ambiguous terms or culturally sensitive expressions were modified through discussion with local language experts. This process enhanced the validity, transparency, and replicability of the questionnaire administration.

Each questionnaire was lasted for approximately 10-15 minutes, and data collection lasted for approximately 4 weeks.

Observational checklist

An observational checklist was developed and used to assess the hygiene and safety practices of food vendors within the study area. The checklist was structured based on guidelines from the Ghana Health Service (GHS), the World Health Organization (WHO) Food Hygiene Standards, and relevant empirical literature on food vendor hygiene assessment. The instrument consisted of clearly defined parameters grouped under five key domains: food handling, utensil hygiene, personal hygiene, environmental sanitation, and regulatory compliance.

Under food handling practices, parameters included washing of foodstuffs before cooking and the use of clean, stored water for washing raw ingredients. For utensil hygiene, the checklist assessed whether cooking utensils were washed with soap and water before and after use, as well as whether clean utensils were stored in hygienic, covered locations. Personal hygiene parameters included the use of aprons, hair coverings, and appropriate handwashing practices. In the domain of environmental hygiene, observations were made on the cleanliness of the cooking area, waste management practices, and the presence of flies or other pests around food preparation and eating areas. Regulatory compliance was assessed through verification of medical certificates and food vending permits where applicable.

All checklist items were scored dichotomously: Yes = 1 (practice observed) and No = 0 (practice not observed). This approach ensured simplicity, objectivity, and uniform interpretation across all observation points.

Quality control and reliability of the instrument

Inter-Observer Reliability

To ensure the reliability and consistency of the observational data, inter-observer reliability procedures were implemented. Two trained research assistants participated in the observational component of the study. Prior to data collection, the observers underwent a structured training session focused on the interpretation and scoring of each item on the observation checklist. A detailed observation manual containing descriptions and examples of expected hygiene practices was provided to guide scoring.

A pilot test of the checklist was conducted in a nearby community (Sefwi-Wiawso). During the pilot phase, both observers independently assessed the same food vendors to evaluate consistency in scoring. Inter-observer reliability was assessed using percentage agreement, and discrepancies identified during the pilot were discussed and clarified. Checklist items that initially showed inconsistencies were refined to improve clarity and reduce subjective interpretation.

To maintain consistency throughout the main data collection, periodic cross-checking was conducted. Approximately 10–15% of the vendors were jointly observed by both observers. In cases of scoring disagreements, a consensus was reached through discussion guided by the observation manual. These procedures ensured that the observational data collected were accurate, credible, and reflective of actual practices within the study environment.

All questionnaire responses and observational data were coded before analysed in STATA 15.0. Closed-ended items were assigned numeric codes representing each possible response category. For dichotomous variables (e.g., Yes/No), values were coded as 1 = Yes and 0 = No. Ordinal variables (e.g., frequency of practices such as handwashing or reheating food) were coded on ordered numeric scales (e.g., 1 = Never, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Often, 4 = Always). Nominal variables such as gender, marital status, or type of vending operation were coded using mutually exclusive numeric categories. All coding rules were documented in a codebook to ensure consistent data entry and to enable future researchers to reproduce the analysis. After coding, data were entered into Excel, checked for completeness, and exported to STATA, where descriptive analyses (frequencies and percentages) were conducted.

 Limitations of the study

Researchers were confronted with certain difficulties during the course of the study, which are worth mentioning. Most of the respondents could not read or write; hence, there was a need to translate the questions from English into local languages (Sefwi and Twi). The interpretation of the questionnaire in the local language (Sefwi and Twi) might have changed the actual meaning of the question and could have led to inaccurate results. However, this did not affect the findings of the study, as effective training was provided to field workers. In addition, financing the research was difficult, as we did not get grant/funding for it.

 Results

Table 1 presents the sociodemographic characteristics of the respondents. Of the 152 respondents, 106 (69.7%) were 18–25 years old, followed in order by those in age groups 26–35, 35 representing 23.0%, and 11 respondents representing 7.3% were 36–45 years old. In addition, 79 of the respondents (52.0%) had been to SHS, with 30 representing 19.7% having attained primary or JHS education, 23 representing 15.1% had no formal education, and 20 representing 13.2% had been in tertiary school.

Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents.
Variables Frequency (n=152) Percentage %
Age
18–25 106 69.7
26–35 35 23.0
36–45 11 7.3
Level of education
No formal education 23 15.1
JHS/Primary 30 19.7
SHS 79 52.0
Tertiary 20 13.2
Marital status
Single 102 67.1
Married 41 26.9
Divorced 8 5.3
Widowed 1 0.7
Duration of food vending
Less than a year 1 0.7
1-5 years 146 96.0
10 years & above 5 3.3

Source: Field Survey (2024).

Regarding marital status, 102 respondents (67.1%) were single, 41 (26.9%) were married, 8 (5.3%) were divorced, and 1 (0.7%) was widowed. Finally, 146 respondents (96.0%) had been in the food vending business for one to five years. Five respondents (3.3%) had been in the food vending business for over 10 years, and only one respondent (0.7%) had been in the business for less than a year.

Table 2 indicates that out of 152 respondents, 136 (89.5%) put leftover foods in the refrigerator, while eight respondents constituting 5.2% put charcoal in the food, seven representing 4.6% put food pans in water, and one respondent representing 0.7% adopted reheating. With regard to how respondents preserved foods before cooking, 102 (67.1%) put food in the fridge, 22 (14.5%) cooked foods, 15 (9.9%) applied salt, 6 (3.9%) used smoking to preserve their food, 4 (2.6%) used drying as their preservation method, and 3 (2.0%) did not use any preservation method.

Food storage and preservation practices of food vendors.
Variable Freq. (n=152) Percentage (%)
Food storage method
Put food in the fridge 136 89.5
Put charcoal in the food 8 5.2
Put the food pan in the water 7 4.6
Reheating 1 0.7
Preservation of Food before Cooking
Freezing 102 67.1
Cooking 22 14.5
Salting 15 9.9
Smoking 6 3.9
Drying food 4 2.6
Never use any preservation methods 3 2.0

Source: Field Survey (2024).

Table 3 shows that 116 respondents (76.3%) used a serving spoon when dishing food, 28 (18.4%) used hands covered with rubber, and 8 (5.3%) used bare hands.

Food hygiene and safety practices.
Variable Freq. (n=152) Percentage (%)
Serving food
Serving spoon 116 76.3
Hand with rubber on 28 18.4
Use bear hands 8 5.3
Hand hygiene practices
After dishing food 21 13.8
As often as my hands are dirty 109 71.7
After using the washroom 22 14.5
Hand washing agents
Soap and water in a bowl 98 64.5
Soap under running water 51 33.6
Hand sanitizer 3 1.9
Number of times used water is thrown away
Once a day 41 27.0
Twice a day 31 20.4
Whenever the water is dirty 80 52.6
Number of times surrounding is cleaned
Once a day 113 74.3
Twice a day 25 16.5
Thrice a day 14 9.2
Medical examination done
Yes 111 73.0
No 41 27.0

Source: Field Survey (2024).

With regard to hand washing, 109 (71.7%) washed their hands as often as they became dirty, 22 (14.5%) washed hands after using the washroom, and 21 (13.8%) washed hands after dishing food. In addition, 98 (64.5%) of the respondents used soap and water in a bowl to wash their hands, 51 (33.6%) used soap under running water to wash their hands, and 3 respondents (1.9%) used hand sanitizers for hand hygiene. Moreover, 80 of the respondents (52.6%) threw water away whenever dirty, 41 (27.0%) discarded water only once daily, and 31 (20.4%) discarded water twice daily.

Concerning environmental hygiene at various vending sites, 113 respondents (74.3%) cleaned their surroundings once daily, 25 (16.5%) cleaned their surroundings twice daily, and 14 (9.2%) cleaned their environment three times a day. Moreover, 111 of the respondents (73.0%) had undergone a medical examination, while the remaining 41 (27.0%) had not done a medical examination.

Table 4 indicates responses from respondents on food preparation practices, 54 (35.5%) used firewood in preparing their food, 42 (27.6%) used charcoal for cooking, and 56 (36.8%) used gas stoves for cooking.

Food preparation practices among vendors.
Variable Freq. (n=152) Percentage (%)
Firewood 54 35.5
Charcoal 42 27.6
Gas stove 56 36.8

Source: Field Survey (2024).

 Observational checklist

As presented in Table 5, 131 respondents (86.2%) washed foodstuff before cooking, while the remaining 21 (13.8%) did not wash food staff before using it. In addition, 126 (82.9%) participants washed cooking utensils with soap and water before use, and the remaining 26 (17.1%) did not wash utensils with soap and water before use. A total of 137 respondents (90.1%) washed their cooking utensils with soap and water, while the remaining 15 (9.9%) left their utensils unwashed after cooking. With regard to personal hygiene, 125 (82.2%) wore aprons and hair covers while cooking and serving food, while 27 (17.8%) had no aprons and heart covers.

Food hygiene and safety practices among respondents.
Variable Frequency (n=152)
Yes N (%) No N (%)
Hygiene practices
Washing of foodstuffs before cooking 131 (86.2) 21 (13.8)
Cooking utensils washed with soap and water before use 126 (82.9) 26 (17.1)
Cooking utensils washed with soap and water after use 137 (90.1) 15 (9.9)
Food Vendors wear apron 125 (82.2) 27 (17.8)
Uses hair covers during cooking and serving food 125 (82.2) 27 (17.8)
Clean surrounding 128 (84.2) 24 (15.8)
Possession of a medical certificate 111 (73.0) 41 (27.0)
Hygienic eating place 119 (78.3) 33 (21.7)

Source: Field Survey (2024).

Respondents with clean surroundings 128 constituting 84.2% of the total observations, whereas the remaining 24 (15.8%) had untidy environments. Meanwhile, 119 (78.3%) had good hygienic eating places, and the other 33 (21.7%) had an unhygienic environment with flies. In addition, 111 (73.0%) had medical certificates, and 41 (27.0%) had no medical certificates.

 Chi-square test

Table 6 indicates a chi-square test that was conducted to examine the association between handwashing with soap and good hygiene practices. According to the same Table 6 food vendors who washed their hands with soap were significantly more likely to demonstrate good hygiene practices than those who did not. Effect size (Cramer’s V): 0.67, further indicate a strong association. This confirms that handwashing with soap is strongly associated with maintaining good food hygiene, and the difference between the groups is statistically significant.

Association between handwashing with Soap and Good Hygiene Practice.
Handwashing Good hygiene Yes Good hygiene No Total
Yes 95 4 99
No 21 32 53
Total 116 36 152

χ 2(1, N=152) = 67.5, p < 0.001, Cramer’s V = 0.67.

 Logistic regression analysis

A binary logistic regression was conducted to determine the effect of selected predictors on good hygiene practices (Yes/No). Predictors included: handwashing with soap, use of apron, hair cover, and duration of vending.

According to Table 7, food vendors who wash their hands with soap were 15 times more likely to maintain good hygiene practices compared to those who do not. Also, wearing an apron or hair cover increased the likelihood of good hygiene by about 4 to 5 times. Furthermore, duration of vending experience was not statistically significant.

Logistic regression – predictors of good hygiene practices.
Predictor OR 95% CI p-value
Handwashing with soap 15.2 5.6–41.3 <0.001
Apron 4.8 1.8–12.6 0.002
Hair cover 4.5 1.7–11.9 0.003
Duration 1–5 yrs (vs <1 yr) 1.6 0.2–12.5 0.64
Duration 10+ yrs (vs <1 yr) 2.0 0.2–19.0 0.54
Discussions

This study aimed to determine food safety and hygiene practices among food vendors in Bibiani. This study sought to answer the following research questions: What are the food storage practices that food vendors employ for their businesses? Under what hygiene practices are food vending performed? How is food prepared by vendors in Bibiani?

The results of the study revealed that in responses concerning food storage and preservation methods used by respondents, 89.5% put leftover food in the refrigerator, while others constituting 5.2% put charcoal in the food, 4.6% put food pans in water, and 0.7% adopted reheating. With regard to how respondents preserved foods before cooking, 67.1% put foods in the fridge, 14.5% cooked foods, 9.9% applied salt, 2.6% used the smoking method, and 2.0% did not use any of the methods mentioned. This is consistent with a study conducted 8 on food safety knowledge, attitude, and hygiene practices of street-cooked food handlers in North Dayi District, which revealed that over half (56%) of street food vendors in North Dayi stored their leftover foods and other foodstuffs in refrigerators.

Concerning responses to the hygienic practices of food vendors and various vending sites, 76.3% of the respondents used a serving spoon when dishing food, 18.4% used a hand covered with rubber, and 5.3% used a bear hand. This finding contradicts a study that Ref. 13 investigated the safety of food in chop bars on Ghanaian Streets and revealed that the majority of food vendors use their bare hands to serve food, which increases the level of food contamination for consumers. Seventy-seven percent (71.7%) washed their hands as often as they became dirty, 14.5% washed hands after using the washroom, and 13.8% washed hands after dishing food. A larger number (64.5%) of the respondents used soap and water during handwashing. In other hand hygiene techniques, as indicated by respondents, 33.6% used soap under running water, and 1.9% applied sanitizer on their hands.

This is consistent with a study conducted 14 on knowledge and practices of handwashing among street food vendors in the Keetmanshoop Municipal area, which concluded that the majority (91%) of street food vendors strongly agreed with the fact that hand washing is performed with water and soap. Furthermore, this contradicts a study 15 on hygiene in restaurants and among street food vendors in Bangladesh, which revealed that only 28 percent of respondents used water and soap to wash their hands before dishing food.

Moreover, 41.7% of the respondents throw water away whenever dirty, 33.3% discarded water only once daily, and 25.0% discarded water twice daily. This finding contradicts a related study by Ref. 15 Hygiene in Restaurants and among Street Food Vendors in Bangladesh, which revealed that 40 percent (122/300) of restaurants and 44 percent (258/600) of food vendors used saved, recycled water to clean their utensils.

Concerning environmental hygiene at various vending sites, the majority of the respondents (81.5%) cleaned their surroundings once daily, and 18.1% cleaned their surroundings twice daily. This is in line with a related study 16 on food safety knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of street food vendors and consumers in Handan, a third-tier city in China, which showed that 23.3% and 13.3% covered or were half covered, respectively. This leaves their environmental conditions unhygienic.

Moreover, 73.0% had undergone a medical examination, while the remainder (27.0%) had not done a medical examination. This is consistent with a study by Ref. 10 the Knowledge Base on Food Borne Diseases and Hygiene in Ghana: Appraisal of Food Vendors in Oguaa Koforidua, which concluded that the majority of respondents (60%) had medical certificates compared to 40% without medical certificates.

Of the total number of respondents, 86.2% washed their foodstuffs before cooking. In addition, 82.9% of the cooking utensils were washed with soap and water before use. This finding is consistent with a study by Ref. 17 Safe Food Handling Knowledge and Practices of Street Food Vendors in Polokwane Central Business District, which concluded that the majority (82.1%) of street food vendors washed raw food properly before cooking, while 63.5% of vendors said they cleaned their serving utensils before using them.

Regarding personal hygiene, 82.2% wore aprons as well as hair covers during cooking and serving of food. This finding contradicts a study conducted 18 on factors affecting food handling among food handlers in the west division of Lira city, which showed that 58 (43.6%) of the respondents reported that they did not wear an apron while preparing food. Regarding clean surroundings, 70.7% of the respondents had clean surroundings, 28.3% had untidy surroundings, and 78.3% had good hygienic eating places. This finding contradicts a study conducted by Ref. 19 Determinants of Microbial Contamination of Street-Vended Chicken Products Sold in Nairobi County, Kenya concluded that six out of every ten (60%) of the studied vending places were not clean, and 33% had pests and flies in their surroundings.

Regarding respondents’ food preparation practices, 35.5% used firewood to prepare their food, 27.6% used charcoal for cooking, and 36.8% used gas stoves for cooking. This finding contradicts a study by Ref. 20 Health Risk Assessment of Informal Food Vendors: A Comparative Study in Johannesburg, South Africa, and concluded that the majority of the food vendors (89%) used gas stoves for cooking, while 11% used open fire (coal and firewood) for cooking.

Furthermore, a chi-square analysis revealed a statistically significant difference between vendors who washed their hands with soap versus those who did not in maintaining good hygiene practices (χ 2 = 67.5, p < 0.001, Cramer’s V = 0.67). This indicates that vendors who practiced handwashing with soap were significantly more likely to maintain good hygiene, highlighting the critical role of proper hand hygiene in food safety.

 Conclusions

The study concludes that:

Even though a majority of the food vendors put food in refrigerators as storage methods and use hygienic practices, many food vendors sell food using unhygienic practices and in unsafe environments. These may cause foodborne infections in consumers.

Furthermore, a substantial number of food vendors did not abide by the major rules of the Ghana Health Service to obtain a valid medical certificate before legally preparing and selling food to customers.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to improve food hygiene and safety practices among food vendors:

Development of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs):

The Government of Ghana, in collaboration with Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs), should establish and enforce prerequisite Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) in all institutions and businesses operating within the hospitality and food service sector. These SOPs should outline minimum requirements for food hygiene, handling, and safety.

Intensification of Food Safety Awareness Campaigns:

The Municipal Assembly should organize continuous food safety and hygiene awareness programmes, including workshops, seminars, and sensitization campaigns for all stakeholders in the hospitality industry. Such initiatives will enhance knowledge and improve compliance with food safety standards.

Capacity Building for Food Vendors and Inspectors:

Street food vendors and environmental health officers should be trained regularly in safe food-handling principles and best practices. Training sessions should cover personal hygiene, cleaning and sanitation, temperature control, and prevention of cross-contamination.

Strengthened Enforcement of Regulations:

Local authorities, especially MMDAs, should strictly enforce existing regulations related to medical examinations, licensing, and registration of food vendors. Routine inspections and monitoring should also be intensified to ensure compliance with health and safety standards.

Provision of Adequate Tools and Resources:

Facility owners and managers must ensure that food handlers have access to adequate tools, equipment, and materials required for safe food preparation and handling. Insufficient or inadequate resources impede the ability of handlers to follow proper hygiene practices.

Improved Environmental Sanitation Measures:

The Municipal Assembly of Bibiani–Anhwiaso–Bekwai should provide more waste bins at strategic locations, especially around food vending sites and busy streets, to enhance environmental cleanliness and minimize contamination risks.

Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Human Research, Publications, and Ethics Committee, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology with reference number CHRPE/AP/193/24 on 11 th March 2024. Permission and approval were obtained from Bibiani Municipal Health Directorate and the Bibiani Municipal Assembly (Ref: GHS/WN/BAB/MHD/006/24) on 8 th January, 2024.

Before participating in the study, all respondents were provided with detailed information regarding the purpose of the study, the procedures involved, the expected duration, and the potential risks and benefits. The information was presented both verbally and in writing in a language understandable to the respondents. Participants were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary and that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any point without any negative consequences. They were also assured that they could decline to answer any question they were uncomfortable with. Written informed consent was obtained from each participant, with copies retained by the research team for documentation purposes.

Furthermore, to safeguard participant privacy, each respondent was assigned a unique numeric code instead of using personal identifiers such as names. All collected data were stored securely in password-protected files accessible only to the principal investigator. Any data presented in reports, publications, or presentations were anonymized to prevent identification of individual participants. Moreover, physical records, including signed consent forms, were stored in a locked cabinet within the principal investigator’s office, ensuring that sensitive information remained confidential.

 Consent for publication

N/A

 Authors’ contributions

Eric Besseah Yeboah 1, Eric Nseebe Acquah 2, William Adu-Amankwaa 3, Peter Twum 4, Eric Eshun 5, Regina Ofosua Asantewaa 6, Thomas Ziema 7

EBY, ENA, and WAA conceived the idea and performed data collection. PT, ROA, EE, and TZ participated in the data analysis and drafting of the manuscript together with EBY. PT, WAA, and EBY critically reviewed the articles before submission.

 Availability of data and materials Underlying data

Figshare: Factors influencing food safety and hygiene practices among food vendors in the Bibiani-Anwhiaso-Bekwai municipality, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30926924. 21

The project contains the following underlying data:

Raw data scores: food safety and hygiene.docx

Figshare: STATA codebook for Factors Influencing Food Safety and Hygiene Practices among Food Vendors in the Bibiani-Anwhiaso-Bekwai Municipality, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30926924. 21

This project contains underlying data:

Codebook for food safety and hygiene practices.docx

 Extended data

Figshare: Factors influencing food safety and hygiene practices among food vendors in the Bibiani-Anwhiaso-Bekwai municipality, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30964699. 22

This project contains the following extended data:

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FOOD SAFETY & HYGIENE.docx

Figshare: Observational checklist for food safety and hygienic practices, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.30964699. 22

Observational Checklist for food safety.docx

Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0).

 Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Bibiani Municipal Health Directorate and tutors of the College of Health Sciences, Bibiani for their insightful suggestions and for permitting us to undertake this research.

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Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

 5 3 2025 Copyright: © 2025 Ratasuk A 2025 This is an open access peer review report distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. recommendation approve-with-reservations

Overall, this manuscript provides valuable insights into food safety practices among vendors in the Bibiani Municipality. However, to enhance its rigor and reproducibility, I recommend addressing the following areas:

-The clarity of how the "Estimated proportion of food vendors in the Bibiani municipality (10%)" was derived needs improvement. Please provide more detail on the source of this estimate.

-While the sampling techniques are mentioned, providing more detail on how the random selection was carried out within each stratum would be beneficial. Additionally, more details on how the food vendor population was estimated would be helpful.

-The translation of questionnaires into local languages is commendable. However, describing the translation process (e.g., who performed the translation, whether back-translation was used, and discussion of potential cultural or linguistic nuances) would increase transparency and replicability.

-Please provide the full questionnaire and the observational checklist as an appendix. Also, please provide more detail regarding the parameters that were used in the observation checklist, and if multiple observers were used, how was inter-observer reliability ensured.

-While the use of STATA is mentioned, providing details on how the data was coded would be very beneficial for reproducibility. A codebook would be very useful.

-The lack of inferential statistics limits the depth of the interpretation. Exploring statistical significance and effect sizes would provide a more robust interpretation of the data. For example, is there a statistically significant difference between the amount of people that wash their hands with soap, versus those that don't?

-Please elaborate on the ethical considerations of the study, specifically addressing informed consent procedures and how participant confidentiality was ensured.

-It would be beneficial to discuss how the study considered the specific cultural context of food vending in the Bibiani Municipality. Were there any unique local practices that might have influenced the findings?

-Please elaborate on the practical implications of the recommendations. How feasible are they to implement, and what resources would be needed? Also, how can the food safety improvements be sustained over time?

-Consider suggesting future research that could use longitudinal studies, or qualitative data to gain a deeper understanding of the food vendors motivations and barriers to proper food safety.

Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?

Yes

If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?

Yes

Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?

Partly

Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?

Partly

Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?

Yes

Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?

Yes

Reviewer Expertise:

Quantitative, Management, Marketing, Hospitality, Restaurant, Hotel, Food.

I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above.

Besseah Yeboah Eric College of Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Bibiani, Bibiani, Ghana

Competing interests: No competing interest.

 13 12 2025

Good day.

Please, thank you so much for your detailed review of our article. Your comments are fully accepted and agreed upon. All your recommendations, ranging from clarity on the estimated proportion of food vendors in the Bibiami Municipality to elaborating on the practical implications of our recommendations, will be well addressed in the revised version of this article.

Thank You.