This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the use of a cross-sectional design limits our ability to conclude cause-and-effect relationships between temporal focus, mental health, and life satisfaction. Second, while we used validated scales, construct validity could be affected by cultural differences in how participants from Israel and India interpret survey items. Third, although our sample size was sufficient, the statistical power may have been influenced by unequal group sizes and gender imbalances, particularly the predominance of female participants in both cultural groups. Additionally, while we identified significant associations, common method bias may have affected responses due to the use of self-report measures. Lastly, external validity is limited by the specific age range and demographic characteristics of the sample, which consisted of university students and young adults. As such, the findings may not generalize to older populations or other cultural settings. Future studies should use longitudinal designs, consider additional cultural variables, and include more diverse and representative samples to strengthen generalizability.

Emerging adulthood, typically defined as the period from the late teens to the mid-twenties, is a critical stage for identity development, exploration, and the navigation of life transitions ( Arnett et al., 2014). During this period, individuals often face uncertainty regarding career choices, relationships, and future prospects, negatively affecting their mental health and subjective well-being. Temporal focus, or the orientation of attention towards past, present, or future events, has been shown to play a pivotal role in how individuals cope with these uncertainties ( Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). A future-oriented temporal focus is often associated with goal-setting, planning, and resilience, and these traits can contribute to positive mental health outcomes ( Shipp & Aeon, 2019). However, an excessive focus on future uncertainties can lead to increased anxiety and depression, diminishing life satisfaction. In contrast, a balanced temporal focus, incorporating positive elements of past, present, and future orientations, has been linked to higher life satisfaction and reduced psychological distress ( Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).

This study investigated the influence of temporal focus, a construct within the field of positive psychology, on the relationship between anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction among emerging adults. Specifically, we examined the moderating role of nationality (comparing India and Israel) and gender on these relationships. India is characterized by a collectivist culture emphasizing social harmony, family obligations, and long-term planning ( Hofstede, 2011). In this context, emerging adults may experience societal pressures to meet familial and societal expectations, amplifying their focus on both past events and future goals ( Sircova et al., 2014). Such pressures can contribute to heightened anxiety and stress, particularly around future uncertainties, potentially detracting from present life satisfaction. Israel is a more individualistic society, where personal autonomy, resilience, and present-focused well-being are emphasized ( Schwartz et al., 2010). Emerging adults in Israel may be more inclined to prioritize individual goals and present experiences, buffering the negative psychological effects of anxiety and depression and fostering higher life satisfaction. However, Israeli youth also face significant pressures related to economic, educational, and national security concerns, which could intensify future-oriented thinking and its associated stress ( Walter, Kasler, & Routray, 2024b).

This study aimed to deepen the understanding of the complex interactions between cultural context, temporal focus, and mental health in emerging adulthood. We hypothesized future temporal focus would buffer the negative effects of anxiety and depression on life satisfaction, contributing to greater well-being among emerging adults ( Khan et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2022). We further proposed that cultural context (India vs Israel) would influence the nature of these relationships, with implications for tailored mental health interventions.

We employed a quantitative cross-sectional design to explore cultural differences in temporal focus, psychological well-being (depression/anxiety), and life satisfaction among emerging adults in India and Israel. Data were collected using standardized questionnaires: Temporal Focus Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale, and a combined Depression and Anxiety Scale. These tools were administered to two participant groups, one from Israel and one from India, allowing cross-cultural comparisons.

To test the hypotheses, we conducted statistical analyses: Pearson correlations, one-way MANOVA, and mediation analysis. The study design enabled the identification of both direct relationships between the variables and subtle differences in how temporal focus may influence psychological well-being and life satisfaction in each cultural context.

The study’s primary purpose was to determine the differences between Israelis and Indians in temporal focus, anxiety and depression, and satisfaction with life (see Table 1 for questionnaire averages by participant group).

This study investigated the relationship between temporal focus, anxiety and depression, and life satisfaction among emerging adults in two distinct cultural contexts: Israel and India. The primary aim was to test the influence of temporal focus on psychological distress (anxiety and depression) and overall life satisfaction across these populations.

H1 proposed that a higher past temporal focus would be associated with increased levels of depression and anxiety in both Israelis and Indians. The hypothesis was supported. Specifically, individuals in both populations with a greater emphasis on past events reported significantly higher levels of psychological distress. This aligns with research showing the detrimental impact of an excessive focus on the past, especially when that focus is linked to negative experiences ( Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2015). An overemphasis on the past, particularly negative past events, may contribute to rumination, a well-documented risk factor for anxiety and depression ( Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Our findings further support the theory that temporal orientation can serve as a critical determinant of mental health outcomes, with imbalanced time perspectives, especially when skewed toward the past, associated with heightened psychological distress ( Shipp & Aeon, 2019).

The results are particularly notable in their cross-cultural consistency. Despite the different socio-cultural backgrounds of the Israeli and Indian participants, the positive correlation between past temporal focus and psychological distress was significant in both groups. This suggests the negative psychological consequences of a past-oriented temporal focus may be universal, transcending cultural and contextual differences. Such findings support Zimbardo and Boyd’s (1999) argument that while cultural factors undoubtedly shape individual time perspectives, certain patterns, such as the association between past focus and distress, appear to be consistent across diverse populations. Together the findings underscore the role of temporal focus as a fundamental psychological construct with broad applicability.

McKay et al. (2017) reported similar results in their hierarchical cluster analysis. They found individuals with a predominant focus on the past tended to experience elevated anxiety levels. Their results suggest cognitive and emotional engagement with past events, particularly those that are unresolved or traumatic, may exacerbate stress responses manifesting as anxiety and depressive symptoms. Our findings build on their work and highlight the potential for temporal focus interventions as a strategy to alleviate psychological distress.

The findings did not show a significant relationship between present temporal focus and psychological distress (H2), or between present temporal focus and life satisfaction among Israelis (H3). However, for the Indian participants, we observed a positive correlation between present temporal focus and life satisfaction, suggesting present-oriented thinking may contribute more significantly to well-being in this cultural context. These results echo those reported by Seema and Sircova (2013). In their study, present-focused individuals, particularly those with a hedonistic present orientation, tended to report higher life satisfaction, though this relationship could vary depending on cultural factors.

Interestingly, future temporal focus, while generally associated with goal-oriented behavior and psychological resilience ( Shipp & Aeon, 2019), was positively correlated with anxiety and depression in both samples. This somewhat counterintuitive result suggests that while a future focus may be adaptive in some contexts, excessive concern with future outcomes – such as fear of failure or uncertainty – may contribute to psychological distress. This finding aligns with research by Stolarski et al. (2014) demonstrating that an overemphasis on future goals and concerns can lead to increased anxiety and stress. This highlights the complexity of temporal focus as a psychological construct and suggests its impact on mental health may depend on the balance between different temporal orientations.

H4 argued Indians would exhibit a significantly higher focus on both the past and the future than Israelis. H4 was supported. Indian participants demonstrated a stronger focus on both past events and future possibilities, while Israeli participants tended to focus less on these temporal dimensions. These cultural differences can be interpreted in light of research that suggests the time perspective is shaped by socio-cultural factors. In India, with its collectivist orientation, individuals may be more inclined to reflect on their connections with family and tradition, fostering a past-oriented perspective. The importance of cultural continuity and reverence for ancestry may contribute to the greater focus on past events. This aligns with theories suggesting collectivist cultures, like India, encourage individuals to think more about their historical and familial roles, placing emphasis on maintaining social harmony through reflection on the past ( Hofstede, 2011; Sircova et al., 2014). Similarly, the stronger future focus observed among Indian participants may reflect long-term planning and anticipation of future outcomes, values that are emphasized in collectivist societies. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory supports this, indicating that societies with a long-term orientation tend to prioritize future planning and perseverance ( Hofstede, 2011). In contrast, Israelis, shaped by an individualistic cultural framework, may place less emphasis on past events and more on pragmatic, short-term future goals ( Schwartz, 1999), leading to lower levels of both past and future focus.

Previous research supports these speculations. Studies have consistently shown that individuals in collectivist cultures, such as India, are more likely to engage in both past-oriented and future-oriented thinking, as their cultural values promote reflection on historical legacies, as well as concern for future generations ( Sircova et al., 2014). In contrast, individuals from more individualistic cultures, like Israel, may prioritize immediate concerns and personal goals over long-term or historical considerations ( Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).

H5 posited Israelis would report significantly higher life satisfaction than Indians. The hypothesis was confirmed. Despite Indians’ higher focus on the future, their life satisfaction was lower than that of Israelis. This difference may be explained by the interaction between temporal focus and well-being. Previous research suggests an excessive focus on the past, particularly when coupled with negative or regretful thoughts, can detract from present well-being ( Shipp & Aeon, 2019). Those who dwell on past events, especially negative experiences, are more likely to report decreased life satisfaction. In the Indian cultural context, whereby the past is culturally significant, this strong past orientation may contribute to lower life satisfaction. In contrast, Israelis, may be more focused on the present, leading to higher reported life satisfaction.

Economic and social conditions could also play a role in shaping the results. Israel, with its relatively high standard of living and access to robust social services, may offer greater opportunities for its citizens to feel satisfied with their lives. Conversely, India faces challenges, such as economic inequality and access to healthcare, and these may negatively impact overall life satisfaction ( Helliwell, Layard, Sachs & Neve, 2021). These socioeconomic factors likely contribute to the observed difference in life satisfaction between the two groups. Additionally, research on time perspective and well-being highlights individuals with a balanced time perspective, incorporating positive aspects of the past, present, and future, tend to report higher life satisfaction ( Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004). While both groups in the present study showed a future focus, the higher life satisfaction observed among Israelis may be partially attributed to a more balanced time perspective, one that does not overemphasize either the past or future, allowing greater present-moment contentment.

H6 posited a negative association between depression anxiety and life satisfaction among Indian participants, but not among Israelis. The hypothesis was supported. Among Indian participants, higher levels of depression and anxiety were associated with lower life satisfaction, reflecting the adverse impact of psychological distress on subjective well-being. In contrast, no significant relationship was found between depression and anxiety and life satisfaction among Israeli participants. The negative association between depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction in the Indian sample is consistent with previous research. Studies have demonstrated that psychological distress, including depression and anxiety, can significantly reduce life satisfaction, particularly in collectivist cultures where social interdependence and harmony are crucial to well-being ( Diener et al., 2018; Triandis, 1995). In collectivist societies like India, individuals may experience greater emotional stress when their mental health is compromised, as it may impact their social roles and relationships, exacerbating their psychological distress ( Lauber & Rössler, 2007). The absence of a significant association in the Israeli sample could be attributed to cultural differences in the way psychological distress is processed and experienced. In Israel’s more individualistic culture, life satisfaction may be less influenced by social expectations, with a greater focus on personal achievement and resilience ( Schwartz et al., 2010).

H7 hypothesized depression and anxiety would mediate the relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction across the entire sample of emerging adults, both Israelis and Indians. The results confirmed this hypothesis. The mediation analysis revealed a higher future temporal focus was directly associated with increased depression and anxiety, which, in turn, negatively influenced life satisfaction. Importantly, the direct effect of future temporal focus on life satisfaction was insignificant, suggesting the relationship between future focus and life satisfaction operates indirectly through psychological distress. This finding highlights the dual nature of future orientation. While future focus is generally linked to goal-setting, resilience, and long-term planning ( Shipp & Aeon, 2019), excessive concern about future outcomes can lead to heightened anxiety and stress, thus undermining well-being. The positive association between future temporal focus and depression and anxiety aligns with prior research suggesting that individuals who are overly preoccupied with future uncertainties may experience increased psychological distress ( Stolarski et al., 2014). Worrying about potential failures or unmet expectations can create an emotional burden that diminishes life satisfaction.

The mediating role of depression and anxiety underscores the importance of a balanced temporal focus. Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) argued individuals who focus too strongly on the future, particularly when coupled with a lack of present-moment awareness, are at greater risk of experiencing stress and anxiety. This imbalance may hinder their ability to enjoy the present, leading to lower life satisfaction. The indirect effect we found supports this notion, demonstrating psychological distress acts as a mechanism through which future temporal focus affects life satisfaction. The bootstrapping analysis confirmed the significance of this mediation effect, showing the indirect relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction, via depression and anxiety, was robust across the entire sample of emerging adults. This has important implications for interventions aimed at improving well-being, as it suggests that reducing anxiety and depression could mitigate the negative effects of an excessive future focus on life satisfaction. Programs that promote mindfulness, present-centered awareness, or stress-reduction techniques could help individuals maintain a healthier balance between future planning and current well-being ( Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).

This study provides clear evidence that temporal focus is a key psychological factor influencing mental health and life satisfaction across different cultural contexts. The strong associations between past temporal focus and psychological distress underscore the importance of interventions aimed at helping individuals reframe their relationship with past experiences to mitigate negative mental health outcomes. The mediating role of anxiety and depression in the relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction further suggests that achieving a balance between future orientation and present-focused mindfulness can enhance well-being.

In this study, depression and anxiety were negatively associated with life satisfaction among Indian participants, but not among Israelis. However, across the entire sample of emerging adults, depression and anxiety mediated the relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction. These results underscore the complex role of temporal focus in well-being, emphasizing the importance of cultivating balanced time perspectives that reduce psychological distress and promote greater life satisfaction.

The study contributes to the growing literature on time perspective, offering valuable cross-cultural insights into how temporal focus influences mental health and well-being and highlighting the potential for tailored interventions in diverse populations.

Not applicable.