South Africa has a complex health profile, with a lasting quadruple burden of disease: communicable diseases (especially HIV and tuberculosis), non-communicable diseases, mental health conditions, and injuries ( Mayosi et al., 2012; Bradshaw et al., 2022). Even with improved access to biomedical care, disease control outcomes remain below expectations in many programs, especially in the public-sector PHC ( Hanmer & Whittaker, 2020). Additional evidence indicates that factors such as nonadherence to treatment, delays in seeking care, unhealthy behaviors, and poor retention significantly affect disease outcomes ( Vos et al., 2020; Bradshaw et al., 2022). In South Africa, these problems are exacerbated by inequality, poverty, stigma, multiple illnesses, and health system challenges, placing additional pressure on PHC services to support sustained behavior change ( Ngene et al., 2023, pp. 1–10). National health policies stress the importance of counselling and psychosocial support in disease control for HIV, TB, NCDs, and mental health programs ( Department of Health [DoH], 2016; DoH, 2023). Still, the effectiveness of counselling in routine PHC services varies, raising concerns about whether current approaches are suitable and consistent ( Sorsdahl et al., 2015).

Although counselling is required in major disease programs, South African PHC primarily uses information-giving and prescriptive methods, known as information–education communication (IEC) strategies ( WHO, 2010; Ticha et al., 2022). These methods assume that more knowledge leads to behavior change. Still, evidence indicates that knowledge alone is insufficient for sustained adherence, lifestyle change, or long-term care, particularly when ambivalence, stigma, or economic hardship are present ( Miller & Rollnick, 2013). By contrast, Motivational Interviewing has been shown to significantly reduce relapse rates across various health settings by actively engaging patients in their care processes ( Sorsdahl, Stein, Corrighall, Cuijpers, Smits, Naledi, & Myers, 2015). This highlights the potential inadequacies of IEC approaches and underscores the need to integrate MI into South African PHC to drive meaningful and sustainable behavior change ( Da Silva, Schneider & Okello, 2015).

Because of this, South Africa still faces high rates of loss to follow-up in TB and HIV programs, low rates of viral suppression and treatment completion, and poor control of chronic NCDs like diabetes and hypertension ( Mwansa-Kambafwile et al., 2020; Bradshaw et al., 2022; Malan et al., 2024). Health workers often report a lack of confidence and skills to manage patient resistance, ambivalence, and withdrawal, which makes counselling less effective ( Tichá et al., 2022). Although there is international evidence for other counselling methods, there is little summary of how these, particularly Motivational Interviewing, are used in South African PHC.

Motivational Interviewing (MI) is a collaborative, person-centered counselling method that helps people find their own motivation for change by working through ambivalence ( Miller & Rollnick, 2013). MI has been shown to be effective for many health behaviours, including medication adherence, reducing substance use, changing lifestyle behaviours, and engaging in chronic disease care ( Lundahl et al., 2013). MI is especially well-suited to PHC contexts because it: •

Can be delivered as brief interventions within routine consultations. It is consistent with task-shifting and multidisciplinary team models.

In South Africa, MI aligns well with PHC re-engineering, ward-based outreach teams, new service delivery models, and National Health Insurance (NHI) goals focused on quality, efficiency, and patient experience ( DoH, 2011; DoH, 2023). Although MI is mentioned more often in policy and training, its actual use, range, and impact in South African PHC remain scattered and poorly summarised ( Da Silva, Schneider, & Okello, 2015).

This review is the first to fully summarise the use of MI in South African PHC and community public health services. It addresses the decisive policy gap of how Motivational Interviewing can be systematically integrated into national health frameworks to enhance behaviour change strategies in PHCs. By demonstrating the practicality and scalability of MI within the current health care models, this review answers the critical policy question: How can MI be implemented comprehensively to bolster existing national health strategies? It shows that MI is mostly used as brief, MI-informed counselling in regular care, especially in HIV and non-communicable disease programs, with some new use in TB services. The review identifies systemic gaps, including limited training, insufficient supervision and monitoring, and project-based delivery. The data show MI to be a practical and scalable counselling method that aligns with PHC re-engineering, people-centred care, and National Health Insurance goals ( Rollnick et al., 2008). The review outlines steps to integrate MI into policy, workforce training, and research to improve disease control in South Africa.

This scoping review aimed to systematically map and synthesise the existing evidence on the use of Motivational Interviewing as a behaviour-change counselling approach for disease control within South African primary health care and community-based public health services.

The objectives of the review were to: a.

Identify how Motivational Interviewing has been applied within South African PHC and community health settings.

A scoping review was conducted to map the extent, nature, and characteristics of the evidence on the use of Motivational Interviewing (MI) as a behaviour change counselling approach within South African primary health care (PHC) services. The review followed the five-stage framework proposed by Arksey and O’Malley (2005): (1) identifying the research question; (2) determining relevant studies; (3) study selection; (4) charting the data; and (5) collating, summarising, and reporting results. Reporting was guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR).

In accordance with the first stage of the Arksey and O’Malley (2005) scoping review framework, the research question was formulated to be broad, exploratory, and encompassing, representing the purpose of a scoping review to map the extent, range, and nature of evidence rather than to assess intervention effectiveness.

The research question was informed by: a.

South Africa’s burden of disease and policy emphasis on counselling within primary health care (PHC);

The primary research question guiding this review was: How has Motivational Interviewing been used as a behaviour change counselling approach for disease control within South African primary health care and community-based public health services? To operationalise this broad question and guide systematic study identification and data charting, the following sub-questions were specified: a.

In what ways has Motivational Interviewing been applied within South African PHC and community health settings?

The author intentionally framed these questions to capture both intervention characteristics and health system considerations, guaranteeing alignment with the review’s objective of informing policy, practice, and future research. The research questions also guided the development of the search strategy, eligibility criteria, data extraction framework, and thematic synthesis. The author selected a scoping review approach because the aim was to map how Motivational Interviewing has been applied within South African PHC, identify gaps, and inform implementation, rather than to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.

The author conducted electronic database searches in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Sabinet, and African Journals Online. In addition, the author identified grey literature through searches of South African Department of Health repositories, provincial health department reports, the Human Sciences Research Council, the World Health Organisation, UNAIDS, and university institutional repositories. Searches covered the period from January 2000 to December 2025 and were limited to English-language publications from South Africa. The starting point of 2000 coincides with the introduction of significant health policy reforms in South Africa, including key strategies for controlling communicable and non-communicable diseases. The full search strategy for all databases is provided in Appendix A.

Eligibility criteria

Studies were eligible for inclusion if they: a.

were conducted in South Africa;

Studies conducted exclusively in specialist or tertiary psychotherapy settings, or those without a clear MI component, were excluded.

Following duplicate removal, titles and abstracts were screened against the inclusion criteria. Full-text articles were then assessed for eligibility. Reasons for exclusion at the full-text stage included lack of MI content and non-PHC settings. Thus, records identified through database searching (n = 32); additional records identified through grey literature (n = 6); total records identified (n = 38); duplicates removed (n = 5); records screened (title/abstract) (n = 33); records excluded (n = 7); full-text articles assessed for eligibility (n = 26); full-text articles excluded (n = 5; reasons: not MI-focused or not PHC); studies included in the scoping review (n = 21). This study selection process is summarised in a PRISMA-ScR flow diagram in Appendix B ( Figure 1).

The author used a structured data charting form to extract information on study design, setting, population, disease focus, description of the MI intervention, outcomes, and reported implementation facilitators and barriers. Inter-rater reliability checks and pilot testing of the data extraction form were conducted as safeguards to ensure accuracy and consistency in data charting ( Büchter et al., 2020). Extracted data were synthesised narratively, with results grouped thematically by disease focus and implementation characteristics.

Risk of bias and methodological considerations

Consistent with PRISMA-ScR guidance, a formal risk-of-bias assessment was not conducted, as the primary purpose of this scoping review was to map available evidence rather than to evaluate intervention effectiveness. However, to strengthen transparency and tackle potential methodological weaknesses, the contracted independent reviewer identified sources of bias across the included studies, which were assessed narratively and reported in the limitations section.

The included studies demonstrated that Motivational Interviewing (MI) has been applied in South Africa predominantly as brief, MI-informed counselling, rather than as full-protocol MI. On average, these interventions lasted 10–15 minutes, aligning with the time constraints typically observed in South African PHC settings. PHC clinic nurses and community health workers delivered interventions mainly within public-sector primary health care (PHC) facilities and community-based services, including clinics, ward-based outreach teams, and follow-up support programs ( Da Silva et al., 2018; Ticha et al., 2022). Professional nurses primarily delivered MI-based counselling, while lay counsellors, community health workers, and health promoters undertook this task , reflecting task-shifting practices within the South African PHC system ( Da Silva et al., 2018; Ticha et al., 2022).

MI principles, such as open-ended questioning, reflective listening, affirmations, and elicitation of change talk, were commonly integrated into routine counselling encounters, including treatment initiation, follow-up visits, and defaulter tracing ( Miller & Rollnick, 2013; Malan et al., 2024). However, few studies reported the use of validated fidelity assessment tools, and MI delivery was often described as “MI-based” or “MI-informed” rather than standardised.

MI interventions were most frequently applied within HIV care, particularly for antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence, retention in care, and re-engagement following loss to follow-up ( DoH, 2016; HIV Retention Study, 2025; UNAIDS, 2024). A second major focus area was non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including diabetes and hypertension, where MI-informed counselling supported lifestyle modification and long-term medication adherence ( Malan et al., 2024; Bradshaw et al., 2022).

The review identified emerging evidence in: •

Tuberculosis (TB) treatment support, including adherence counselling and stigma-sensitive interventions ( Mwansa-Kambafwile et al., 2020; Foster et al., 2024)

Most interventions targeted adult patients, with limited focus on adolescents, youth, maternal health, or individuals with multimorbidity, despite the growing burden of co-existing conditions in South Africa ( Mayosi et al., 2012; Vos et al., 2020).

Across included studies, MI-based counselling was associated with several positive outcomes relevant to disease control. These included: •

Improved therapy adherence, particularly in HIV and NCD programs ( Lundahl et al., 2013; Malan et al., 2024)

Outcome measurement varied substantially across studies. Many relied on self-reported adherence, qualitative accounts, or proxy indicators of engagement, while objective clinical outcomes, such as viral suppression, TB treatment completion, or glycemic control, were inconsistently reported ( Lundahl et al., 2013; Malan et al., 2024).

Facilitators of MI implementation included adherence to person-centered care principles, compatibility with brief counselling encounters, and acceptability among both providers and patients ( Miller & Rollnick, 2013; DoH, 2023). Several studies noted that MI enhanced providers’ confidence in managing ambivalence and resistance, particularly in adherence counselling contexts ( Ticha et al., 2022).

Common barriers included limited formal training in MI, lack of structured supervision and fidelity monitoring, high workload and time constraints, and inconsistent inclusion into routine service workflows ( Da Silva et al., 2018; Ticha et al., 2022; Malan et al., 2024). MI implementation was often project-based, limiting sustainability beyond the pilot phase ( Mwansa-Kambafwile et al., 2020). One pragmatic workflow adjustment that could quickly relieve time pressure for nurses is the integration of MI into existing electronic health record (EHR) systems. This adjustment would enable automated prompts and reminders for MI strategies during consultations, reducing cognitive load and time spent recalling MI techniques and thereby improving efficiency ( Weimann & Petersen, 2017).

Overall, the results show that MI is primarily utilized in South African PHC as a practical , adapted counselling method integrated into routine services. While studies frequently report improvements in adherence, engagement, and patient experience, the evidence remains fragmented, with considerable variation in intervention design, delivery, and measurement.

This scoping review has several important strengths. First, it employed a rigorous, transparent methodological approach using the Arksey and O’Malley framework and was reported in line with PRISMA-ScR guidance, thereby enhancing repeatability and methodological credibility. Second, the inclusion of both peer-reviewed and grey literature, including national policy documents and programme reports, enabled a thorough mapping of the use of Motivational Interviewing (MI) in South African primary health care (PHC), extending beyond the academic literature. Third, the review focused explicitly on PHC and community-based public-sector settings, ensuring strong relevance to routine service delivery and health-system implementation. Fourth, by examining MI across multiple disease programs rather than a single condition, the review provides a system-level perspective on behaviour change counselling in a context characterised by multimorbidity. Finally, the explicit consideration of implementation factors, such as workforce training, supervision, fidelity, and workflow integration, improves the review’s utility for decision-makers, managers, and practitioners seeking scalable, sustainable approaches to improve disease control.

However, the author acknowledges several limitations. The included evidence base was dominated by qualitative studies, programme evaluations, and small quasi-experimental designs, with few randomised controlled trials conducted in South African PHC settings, limiting causal inference. Selection bias may be present, as many studies relied on convenience samples from single facilities or districts, thereby limiting generalizability. In addition, MI fidelity was rarely assessed, with many interventions described as “MI-informed” rather than formally evaluated against validated competency measures. Outcome reporting was heterogeneous and frequently depended on self-reported adherence or engagement, while objective clinical indicators were inconsistently measured. Follow-up periods were frequently short, limiting assessment of sustained behaviour change. Although the inclusion of grey literature reduced publication bias, some programme reports lacked detailed methodological descriptions. Despite these limitations, the review fulfils its scoping objective by mapping available evidence, identifying gaps, and directing future research and implementation priorities.

•

PHC services should move beyond directive information–education–communication approaches (IEC) and adopt Motivational Interviewing (MI) as a structured, evidence-based counseling method that addresses ambivalence and supports sustained behavior change.

The following recommendations are informed by the findings of this review and consistent with national health system priorities.

For policy and governance, South Africa should, •

Formally adopt Motivational Interviewing as a core counselling approach within national and provincial guidelines for HIV, TB, NCDs, mental health, and PHC re-engineering ( DoH, 2016; DoH, 2023).

For Workforce development, the health system should, •

Institutionalise MI training within pre-service education, in-service training, and continuing professional development for PHC nurses, community health workers, health promoters, as well as adherence counsellors ( Ticha et al., 2022). To ensure training effectiveness, a competency benchmark should be established, utilising a specific fidelity score or skill checklist. This benchmark would serve as an objective measure to signal that training has been effectively implemented and to help implementers consistently evaluate success ( Tricco et al., 2020).

For Service delivery and programme integration, the Department of Health should, •

Embed MI into routine PHC workflows, including adherence counselling, chronic disease reviews, defaulter tracing, ward-based outreach team activities, and differentiated service delivery models ( Da Silva et al., 2018).

For Research and evaluation, academic and research institutions should, •

Strengthen implementation research using appropriate tools to assess scalability, sustainability, and contextual adaptation of MI in PHC settings ( Tricco et al., 2018).