To examine pre-service teachers’ perceptions of gender equality and inclusion in Nigeria and to identify policy-relevant gaps in teacher education frameworks.

1.

To assess perceptions of gender bias and norms within classroom environments.

The findings offer insight into the ways in which future teachers interpret and internalise patterns of inequality within educational settings. These perceptions carry significant policy implications because they influence future classroom practices and institutional culture.

Across all study locations, a substantial proportion of pre-service teachers perceived that classroom environments favour male students in terms of participation, leadership, and subject engagement. This pattern indicates that gender bias is embedded within routine pedagogical practices rather than being episodic or limited to specific contexts. This can be explained as follows. In many Nigerian communities, gender roles are still strongly defined, and the construction of masculinity in academic places and workplaces is prevalent. ⁹ Boys are often socialised to be assertive, outspoken, and confident in public spaces, while girls are encouraged to be compliant and less vocal. ⁹ These unequal expectations do not disappear in the classroom; they are reproduced within it. Pre-service teachers, having grown up in the same unfair and heavily gendered environment, may unconsciously interpret boys’ assertiveness as intelligence or leadership potential, while viewing girls’ quietness as a lack of competence. ¹⁰ This sustained culture often results in more frequent interactions between teachers and boys. Others include greater tolerance of disruptive or dominant behaviour among male students and lower expectations for girls’ active participation.

Policies that prioritise enrolment parity without addressing classroom-level dynamics remain insufficient in Nigeria. Hence, mechanisms must be incorporated to address gendered participation, teacher expectations, and leadership allocation within learning environments.

The study demonstrates that inequality operates along multiple axes. Respondents frequently identified socioeconomic status as a determinant of privilege, influencing access to opportunities, recognition, and participation.

Gender and socioeconomic disadvantage often intersect, resulting in compounded forms of exclusion. The intersection, which has been studied by various researchers, ^{11– 12} means that disadvantage is not only about being female or poor in isolation, but also about how both conditions interact to restrict opportunities, participation, and long-term learning, as well as related outcomes.

Policy frameworks that address gender inequality in isolation risk overlooking broader structural disparities as observed in the study. An intersectional approach is required to capture the complexity of disadvantage across various levels of Nigeria’s educational system.

Although respondents were aware of gender bias, many perceived such patterns as typical of the Nigerian education system. This indicates that inequitable practices have become normalised through repeated exposure, and familial factors are culpable. ¹³ These normalisations manifest as follows. First, the internalisation of gender-stereotyped academic roles among students. Second, routine differential teacher expectations and classroom interactions by gender. Third, acceptance of the gendered division of school tasks and responsibilities. Fourth, reduced likelihood of reporting or challenging discriminatory practices. Fifth, reinforcement of gender-biased career aspirations and subject choices.

Teacher education programmes must progress beyond awareness-raising to actively challenge and transform entrenched beliefs. Pre-service teachers are likely to reproduce existing inequalities in their professional practice without intervention to address the issues.

Inclusion was predominantly conceptualised in relation to gender, particularly through girl-focused empowerment initiatives. Other dimensions of exclusion, such as disability and socioeconomic disadvantage, received comparatively limited attention. Inclusion is often misconstrued as gender equality, and this misconceptualisation of inclusion affects both the most influential traditions in feminist theorising about gender: social-position accounts and identity accounts. ¹⁴

Current policy discourse may inadvertently narrow the scope of inclusion. Conceptual frameworks within teacher education should be expanded to encompass multiple and intersecting forms of marginalisation.

Empowerment efforts targeting girls were widely acknowledged. However, they coexist with persistent structural inequalities that manifest in diverse ways. This indicates that such initiatives operate within, rather than transform, existing systems of inequality.

Policy interventions must transition from isolated programmes to systemic reforms that address the underlying institutional and cultural drivers of inequality in Nigeria’s educational systems.

The following actionable recommendations are prescribed.

Teacher education curricula in Nigeria should include compulsory modules on gender equality, equity, bias recognition, and inclusive pedagogy. These modules will be designed to recognise and uphold that gender equality can shape students’ attitudes, engagement levels, and academic performance. The country can learn from policies that moved several countries from gender-sensitive pedagogy ¹⁵ to gender-responsive pedagogy ¹⁶ and move towards gender-transformative pedagogy ¹⁷ to address gender inequality in Nigeria’s education systems.

Education policies should explicitly integrate intersectional perspectives, addressing how gender interacts with socioeconomic status, disability, and other forms of marginalisation. Training programmes must include case-based and reflective approaches to support this integration. The recommendations should go beyond the education space and incorporate all aspects of pre-service teachers’ lives, as outlined in a paper published for the Nigerian context, particularly in areas where intersectionality can help improve gender inequities. ¹⁸ 1).

Stakeholders must acknowledge that different groups of people face unique challenges and disadvantages and that gender inequality cannot be addressed without considering the broader social context, such as ethnicity, religion, sexuality, disability, income, marital status, education and so on.

Teaching practice should be structured to emphasise inclusive classroom strategies using the highly acclaimed framing, relational, organisational and didactic dimensions. ¹⁹ Assessment frameworks must include criteria for evaluating gender-responsive, transformative, and inclusive teaching practices to ensure alignment between theory and practice.

National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) standards should incorporate measurable competencies related to gender equality and inclusive education. Certification from the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN) must assess pre-service teachers’ ability to implement inclusive pedagogical approaches effectively. Hence, competency-based teacher education in gender and inclusive practices ²⁰ is highly recommended.

Continuous professional development (CPD) programmes must be established by relevant stakeholders to equip in-teacher educators with the knowledge and skills required to deliver gender-responsive, transformative and inclusive training.

Robust monitoring frameworks must be developed to track progress in implementing gender-responsive, transformative and inclusive education policies across the education system. Evidence-based data-driven approaches should inform continuous improvement and policy adaptation or review.