Prevalence, causes and impacts of human trafficking in Asian countries: A scoping review

Search strategy

For the purpose of this review, the author only relied upon electronic databases to collect relevant research data. The specific databases that were used for searching the articles include, Sage Journal Online, Wiley Online, Hein Online, Taylor & Francis Online, Web of Science, and Scopus literature. These databases have rich data including, scholarly articles, journals, reports and other scholarly data that can be easily explored for a scoping review. The search for data took place from January 2015 to June 2022, by using different terms and keywords. The search strategy was as follows;

(Human trafficking in Asia, social and economic factors contributing to human trafficking, causes and impacts of human trafficking, and names of Asian countries).

Eligibility criteria

Various types of studies, reviews, and international professional reports included in the English language that meet the inclusion criteria, addressed the research objectives, full-text articles, and focused on human trafficking are presented in this review. Likewise, studies or reports published before January 2015, did not have a link with human trafficking and illegal migration, and did not focus on Asian countries were excluded from this review.

Screening and selection process

For this review, 1,278 sources were found in the online electronic databases. Initially, every article went through the process of screening; based on the title and abstract. Articles unrelated to human trafficking activities and irrelevant to Asian countries, were published before January 2015 and duplicates were removed in the process. After removing these data, a total number of 147 articles were selected for in-depth screening. Next, 83 articles and reports were removed at the eligibility stage because their content and concept did not match and be in tandem with the objectives of the study. Finally, 64 articles were selected and reviewed for this research. Figure 1 describes the flowchart of the scoping review process and identification and Table 1 summarizes the reviewed studies.

Selection and characteristics of sources of evidence

The scoping review selection process and summary of quality assessment for all reviewed literature are presented in Figure 1 and Table 1. More specifically, the search strategy for this review was limited to Asian countries, a total number of 64 articles were included in this review and the content of reviewed articles reflated the prevalence of human trafficking, causes of human trafficking and impacts of human trafficking in Asian countries. For the effects and results of the individual sources, the following are the variables obtained by the researchers from the selected articles.

Figure 1. Identification of studies via databases.

Prevalence of human trafficking in Asia

In the 21^st century, international political environment pose different major issues of concern. The most passing issues is the prevalence of trafficking in persons across the globe. The history of human trafficking could be traced back many years ago when slavery and forced servitude were among the said issues. We might think that in the 21^st century such forms of trafficking activities have ended, but unfortunately and to the chagrin of mankind, new forms have emerged. This assumption follows the classical phrase; “old wine in new bottle”.^32,33 Internationally, the human trafficking is recognized as a crime since year 2000.³⁴ According to the United Nations office of drugs and crime (UNODC) the spread of human trafficking activities increased between year 2003 to year 2016 in the world and specifically in Asian countries.³⁵ 12.3 million Victims of these crime were reported in year 2005 which later increased, 21 million victims in year 2012 and eventually 40.3 million victims in year 2016 on multifarious forms such as sexual exploitation, forced labor and forced marriages.³⁶ In these estimations, 30% of human trafficking victims were recorded from south Asia, East Asia and pacific region which are considered to be a large share in total global figure.³⁵ It has also been noted that human trafficking increased in the Asian countries after the invasion of Russia and later in year 2001 by US civil war on Afghanistan. With this fact, majority of Afghan and Pakistani girls are being trafficked to Saudi Arabia and UAE. Likewise, women and children are also trafficked to Pakistan and other Asian countries for forced marriage and forced labor purposes.³⁷ In the last 30 years, more than 30 million of children and women are sexually victimized in Asia. Mostly Asian trafficking victims are sent to Asian countries, i.e., Thailand, Japan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Taiwan.³⁸ The latest global survey index indicates that 35.8 million people are suffering due to enslavement. These estimations based on different existing studies and on face to face-to-face interviews conducted by Gallop international in different countries, including Brazil, Pakistan, Nepal, Malaysia, Indonesia, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Russia.³⁹

Likewise, a report on human rights indicated that in Bangladesh, 10,000 to 20,000 women and men are trafficked internally as well as on international borders to India, Pakistan, Bahrain, Kuwait and many other Asian countries for sexual exploitations.⁴⁰ Similarly, in India 14 million of human trafficking cases estimated in year 2014, which includes victims of labor trafficking, sex trafficking and forced marriages.⁴¹ In year 2016, Global Slavery Index indicated that majority of 58% of human trafficking victims are reported in Asian countries specifically in China, India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan and Bangladesh.¹² It is noted that 57% of workers (women and children) are the victims of human trafficking in Thailand. Generally, Thailand also transports human trafficking victims to other countries such as India, Malaysia, Japan, Hong Kong, Germany and Australia for the purpose of sex business.⁴² Likewise, majority of North Korean women trafficked to Asian countries for sexual exploitations, are being sold to Chinese men especially.⁴³ Malaysia is also one of the targeted countries for the human trafficking activities in Southeast Asia due to its impressive economic growth, strategic location and political stability.⁴⁴ It is of irresistible truth that on yearly basis, Malaysia has a large influx of migrant workers, be it documented or undocumented working in various fields of economy and being susceptible to human trafficking thereafter. Like in manner, the estimated number of people in modern-day slavery continues to rise in Asian countries. Table 2 shows the estimated prevalence and number of people by country in modern-day slavery between 2016 and 2021.^4,45

Causes of human trafficking in Asia

Human trafficking is considered a fast-growing crime in the world. It is imperative to know why an individual becomes a victim of trafficking through the use of deception and coercion. The causes of human trafficking vary from region to region and country to country. In Asian countries, many push and pull factors contribute and describe the root causes of human trafficking. In the general contexts, it can be divided into four main categories namely political, economic, environmental and cultural.⁴⁶ There are several causes as to the occurrence of human trafficking in the region (see Figure 2).⁴ To be more precise, the author will focus on some major causes which significantly and prevalently contribute towards human trafficking. These causes are the following:

Figure 2. Level of vulnerability to modern day slavery, by dimensions (Source: Global Slavery Index, 2023).⁴

Poverty and unemployment: Poverty is one of the major causes that contribute to human trafficking.² It is the reason behind the decision of an individual to become a prostitute or forced labor. It is primarily because of their weak economic duress and fiscal status. The gap between developing and developed countries with poverty and marginalization has widened with globalization. Majority of population in Asian countries live in third world conditions with less basic infrastructure and employment opportunities. Traffickers take advantage from these conditions and give false offers to poor people to exploit them.^37,39,47 Many individuals leave their families and home because of the financial, educational and job opportunities, but most of them were coerced into trafficking.¹⁷ A study indicates, that every year five to seven thousands girls are trafficked to India from Nepal. These girls are sold by the poor parents on the façade of bogus marriages or employment promises. A qualitative study resulted that because of economic troubles, Thai and Filipina women had been trafficked as a sex worker.⁴⁸ Likewise, many Pakistani and Indian women, men and children migrated to Europe, America and other Asian developed countries for the purpose of low skilled jobs like constrictions and driving. Many of them become the victims of human trafficking.^11,13,46 In addition, recently more than 130 Bangladeshis were trafficked to Thailand with fake promises for employment. It is also noted that 200,000 Filipinos became the victims of labor trafficking.⁴⁹ Large number of people from central Asian countries i.e., Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan are trafficked on the promises of better socio-economic conditions and bright future. In addition, 70% of North Korean women are trafficked to China for the purpose of forced marriage and forced labor.^49,50 Similarly, because of fraudulent employment offers, many men and women are trafficked from Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Maldives and Afghanistan.⁴⁰

Environmental and manmade disaster: In today’s world, many populations migrated from one place to another place because of a conflict, natural calamity, terrorism and war. The issue of human trafficking burns whenever a disaster strikes.⁵¹ The United Nations (UN) environmental program has stated that because of disasters 20% to 30% of human trafficking activities increased.⁵² It is reported that by the end of 2017, 68.5 million people were forcibly displaced due to conflict and natural disasters. More than two-thirds of them originated from Afghanistan, South Sudan, Somalia, Syria and Myanmar in the form of refuges, IDPs and asylum seekers.⁵³ Similarly, due to militancy and terror, large numbers of Rohingya Muslims trafficked to Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia and other countries of Asia. A number of victims were sexually abused, raped, put to labor by force and killed. Same cases were also noted in Iraq and Libya.⁵⁴ Furthermore, climate changes and other forms of environmental changes also lead to child labor, domestic abuse and human trafficking.⁵² During flood in year-2011, approximately 13 million people were affected in Thailand. The consequences of this natural disaster were encountered as economic inequality, political and most importantly human rights violation and human trafficking.⁵⁵ Likewise, during 2010-flood, the cases of rapes, sexual harassment and trafficking of young girls and women increase in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Same scenario was also reported after 2005 earthquake in Kashmir, Pakistan.⁵⁶ In addition, after the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, traffickers targeted mostly children in camps and shelters for victimization.⁵²

Weak policies and corruption: In the 21^st century the political model of the world changed because of war and political unrest in the Middle East. Majority of traffickers take advantage from these favourable environments.⁵⁷ Corruption is the main compound of weak policies and law enforcement.⁵⁸ The irregular migration increases because of the high level corruption and weak policies by the government and political leaders.⁵⁹ For example, the border of India and Nepal monitored on regular basis. Majority of Indian and Nepali citizen cross the 1850-kilometer-long border without showing any legal documents. The trafficker easily targeted people from Nepal and make heavy dominancy on the corrupt authorities.⁵⁸ In several Asian countries weak policies of political leaders and the corruption of law enforcing agencies leads to irregular migration and human trafficking.¹⁶ Like in Iraq, Libya and Myanmar the government officials and other policy makers involve in the recruitment of human trafficking for the purpose of child soldiers and forced labor in armed forces. Armed military and other political and government policy makers have used trafficking to increase their resources and political power.⁵⁵ Most of the trafficking victims have not trust on government agencies and did not want to report their cases in police stations. For instance, one female victim told “if we go to the police station for help, I am sure they will not help”.⁴³

Impacts of human trafficking

Human trafficking has created hostile social, physical and psychological impacts on individuals. It also has social, economic and political disorders on the system of society.^16,32,60 For instance, a study of 14 countries indicates that more than 95% of women victims had suffered by physical and sexual violence. It is also documented that 23% of Nepalese human trafficking victim girls and women were tested HIV positive.³⁸ Likewise, 33% of psychical violence cases of human trafficking victims reported from Cambodia. Similarly, in south Asian countries a large number of men, women and children i.e., 22% to 49% experienced physical and sexual violence.⁶¹ It was observed during the collection of data from Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam, that majority of men victim respondents had experienced physical violence (e.g. Beaten, kike, slapped, dragged and push). While women and children highly observed in sexual violence.⁶⁰ Furthermore, the victims of human trafficking such as women, men and children are noted in the high risk of psychological wellbeing.^62,63 Traffickers use the tactics of threats to control the minds of victims. They usually threaten their families to violence and deaths. Degradation is the most powerful psychological tactic, used by traffickers to control the victim’s behaviour. Likewise, the traffickers insulted and humiliated the victims. They also destroyed their privacy and dignity and treated them like animals. For example, a victim of trafficking told that “it was very difficult, he was treating me like a dog”.⁶³ However, in different studies the trafficking victims commonly documented psychological issues including, stress, anxiety, depression, nightmares, insomnia, personality disorder or chronic. A recent study examined 98% trafficking victims have at least one psychological disorder. It is also reported that because of these psychological problems many of victims commit suicide.^64,65 In addition, human trafficking activities also create huge impacts on overall society. In every society, traffickers search for targeted young women and men who are looking for a job or education opportunities. For example, after the victimizations, large numbers of Indian victims do not want to return to their home countries, because of social stigmatization, threat calls of traffickers and bad economic condition.⁶²

Underlying data

No data are associated with the article.

Reporting guidelines

Figshare: PRISMA-ScR checklist for “Prevalence, causes and impacts of human trafficking in Asian countries: A scoping review” https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.20484357.⁷¹

Data are available under the terms of Creative Common Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0)