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Systematic Review

Effect of the dose, timing, and route of administration of mesenchymal stem cells on their regenerative capacity after myocardial infarction: A systematic review

[version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]
PUBLISHED 17 Sep 2024
Author details Author details
OPEN PEER REVIEW
REVIEWER STATUS AWAITING PEER REVIEW

Abstract

Background

The global rise in cases of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) poses a significant health challenge, which is why adult stem cells have gained great importance in recent years, due to their potential to promote the regeneration of the flowcardiac tissue, among which multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) stand out, thanks to their clinical usefulness.

Objectives

To evaluate the effect of the dose, timing, and route of administration of MSCs on their regenerative capacity after MI.

Methods

We searched for randomized clinical trials and experimental studies published up to April 25, 2024, in Medline (PubMed) and Scopus.

Results

Nine clinical studies were included in the qualitative assessment. The main routes of application were coronary, intramyocardially, epicardial topical and systemic venous perfusion, which could have clinical effectiveness with doses of 1x106 MSC/Kg,1 to 3 x 106, 4x106 and those greater than 0.5x106, respectively. The median number of viable cells administered was 2.4x106 (IQR: 1.6-2.4) in the PCI group versus 1.6x106 in the RCVI group (p=0.167). Median ex vivo retention was 2.55% in the RCVI group, 30 days after AMI, and 39.40% in the PCI group. At 4 and 12 months of follow-up, a better left ventricular end-to-end (LVEF) was observed in the group treated with ADSCs, at 4 (51.8% ±5.4% vs. 35.5% ±1.9%) and 8 weeks (52.1%± 3.4% versus 34.2% ±4.7%, p = 0.048).

Conclusions

The dosing, timing of administration, and routes of administration were important factors to assess the efficacy of the MSC.

Keywords

Mesenchymal Stem Cells, Myocardial Infarction, Intravenous Administration, Dosage.

Introduction

The global rise in acute myocardial infarction (AMI) cases poses a significant health challenge. In China, it is estimated that by 2030 there will be 23 million cases,1 with high mortality rates persisting despite technological advances in its treatment. In Japan, AMI with ST segment elevation has a mortality rate up to 12.3%.2 Although survival can reach up to 85%, one-year post-AMI,3 the consequences can severely impact quality of life, underscoring the need to explore alternative treatments to mitigate these effects.

Adult stem cells have gained great importance in recent years due to their potential to promote the regeneration of cardiac tissue. Among them, multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) stand out, which were described in 1967 by Friedenstein et al, who isolated from the bone marrow (BM), adherent clonogenic cells like fibroblasts called fibroblast colony-forming units (CFU-F). The International Society for Cellular Therapy (ISCT) established criteria to identify them, in 2006; First, MSCs must adhere to plastic when maintained under standard culture conditions, second, MSCs must express CD105, CD73 and CD90, and lack expression of CD45, CD34, CD14 or CD11b, CD79-α or CD19, and HLA-DR surface molecules. Third, MSCs must differentiate into osteoblasts, adipocytes, and chondroblasts in vitro.4

There are multiple sources of obtaining MSCs. Those derived from bone marrow (BM-MSCs) are some of the most studied, and can be expanded in vitro.1 Furthermore, when they have been applied in vivo, they have differentiated into cardiomyocytes5 and produce cytokines, chemokines, and micro RNAs (miRNAs) to reduce inflammation and remodeling of the infarcted area.1

Another source currently used to obtain MSCs is adipose tissue, which can also be easily expanded in vitro. These cells (ADSCs) present properties similar to BM-MSCs and have demonstrated their ability to reduce cardiac remodeling and promote angiogenesis. These effects have been demonstrated in a porcine model of AMI in which less fibrosis was demonstrated in the infarcted area, evaluated with Picrosirius red, as well as greater vascularization in the peri-infarct area, detected by anti-CD31 antibodies labeled with fluorescent substances.6

Zhang et al., 2021, conducted a single-blind multicenter randomized controlled trial, that evaluated 43 patients with AMI treated with coronary reperfusion (PCI), 21 of them received 3.31 ± 1.70 × 106 BM-MSCs, between 23.24 ± 7.69 days, after the AMI, and 22 patients, usual post-PCI care. No significant differences were found in left ventricular end-systolic volume (LVESV), end-diastolic volume (LVEDV), and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) at six months of follow-up, between both groups. Nor did it detect differences in myocardial perfusion and the rate of metabolic defects at twelve months. They concluded that the sample number was small, the dose applied was insufficient, the application time was late, and that the route of administration and the source of obtaining of the MSCs were probably not optimal.1

Gathier, W.A. et al., 2019, conducted an experimental study to compare the retention percentage of MSCs radiolabeled with Indium-111, applied by retrograde coronary venous infusion (RCVI) or by PCI in a porcine model of AMI; Likewise, the safety of the procedures was evaluated. Four weeks after AMI was induced, MSCs were applied to six pigs in each group [median age and weight at the time of AMI, 20 weeks (IQR: 18-22) and 72 kilograms (IQR: 68-76), respectively and four hours later, in vivo and ex vivo scintigraphy was performed, which made it possible to evaluate the percentage of retention of the MSCs by dividing the radioactivity of the heart by the total radioactivity emitted by the body or by the sum of those emitted by the independent organs, respectively. The median number of viable MSCs administered was 2.4 ×106 (IQR: 1.6–2.4) in the PCI group versus 1.6 × 106 (IQR: 1.3–1.7) in the RCVI group (p=0.167). in vivo retention presented a significant difference between both groups with a median of 2.89% (IQR: 2.14–3.86) in the RCVI group versus 13.74% (IQR: 10.20–15.41) in the PCI group (p=0.002). Median ex vivo retention was 2.55% (IQR: 1.86-3.16) in the RCVI group versus 39.40% (IQR: 38.54-44.64) in the PCI group (p=0.002).

In the RCVI group, coronary sinus (CS) dissection was observed in three of the six pigs at the level of the tip of the catheter, three animals presented a small to moderate clear pericardial effusion and a hematoma of approximately 4 cm2 in the atrioventricular groove on the left side. One animal in the PCI group showed no flow directly after infusion of the cells, probably due to thrombus formation. Flow was restored 5 min after angioplasty.7

Mori D et al., 2018, evaluated the regenerative effects of human ADSCs using a porcine model of AMI, treated 6 pigs with 108 ADSCs applied to the epicardium, using a spray containing a fibrinogen matrix, and another 6 served as controls. At four months, LVEF was higher in the experimental group (p < 0.05),6 and left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVDs) was lower in the same group. The end-systolic and end-diastolic volume/pressure ratio, as well as the global coronary flow reserve, was better preserved in the experimental group, after the same period.

At 8 weeks after transplantation, less fibrosis in the infarcted area, a lower number of hypertrophic cardiomyocytes, and greater vascularization in the peri-infarct region were observed in the group treated with ADSCs evaluated with Masson’s trichrome staining, PAS staining, and immunohistochemistry for anti-CD31, respectively. Finally, a higher concentration of basic fibroblast growth factor (b FGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) was detected. The authors concluded that spray application of ADSCs is safe and promotes the recovery of cardiac function.6

Su Hyun K et al., 2018, conducted a randomized, single-blind trial, evaluating 26 patients with AMI with ST segment elevation, treated by PCI, 14 of whom were randomized to the experimental group treated with BM MSCs and 12 patients to the control group. The experimental group received 7.2 ± 0.9 × 107 BM - MSCs, 30 days after PCI, and the control group received standardized care. Patients were evaluated 4 and 12 months after PCI, using single photon emission tomography (SPECT) and echocardiography, respectively; detecting significant differences in LVEF between both groups at 4 months (8.8 ± 2.9 vs. 4.8 ± 1.9%, p = 0.031) and 12 months (9.9% ± 5.2 vs. 6.5% ± 2.7%, p = 0.048). Likewise, the cells used showed their in vitro capacity to differentiate into cardiomyocytes, which expressed troponin T, due to the stimulation of bFGF. Furthermore, they demonstrated their ability to promote angiogenesis through the secretion of VEGF, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), which managed to induce the proliferation of human vascular cells. In conclusion, they indicated that intracoronary administration of autologous BM-MSCs, 1 month after PCI, is tolerable and safe, with a significant improvement in LVEF at 4 and 12 months of follow-up in patients with AMI of the anterior wall.8

Lim M et.al, 2018, carried out an experimental study in a porcine model of AMI, forming three groups that were treated with: phosphate buffer saline (PBS); low dose, 0.5 × 106 umbilical cord-derived MSCs (UC-MSCs); and high, 1.5 × 106 UC-MSCs applied intravenously. The doses in the experimental groups were applied 120 minutes and 4 weeks after AMI. In both experimental groups, a trend towards improvement in LVEF was observed at 4 and 8 weeks compared to the control group, but it was not statistically significant. Both groups managed to improve the infarcted area, but did not significantly improve flow at 4 and 8 weeks compared to the control group. Collagen deposition was reduced 3.5 times in the infarcted area, at 8 weeks after AMI in the groups treated with UC MSCs, compared to the control group, which reduced cardiac remodeling. High doses of UC MSCs prevented the downregulation of Cx43 protein in the remote infarct area.4

The protein expression of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF α) was lower in the infarcted area and at its border, in the group treated with low doses of UC-MSCs, compared to the control group; In this same group, IL6 expression was also lower at the edge of the infarct. VEGF messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels were higher at the edge of the infarct in the group treated with high doses of UC MSCs compared to the control group. Platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM-1; CD31) mRNA was more expressed in the infarcted area and its border in this same group. UC-MSCs were labeled with enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) through a lentivirus transfection process. This methodology allowed the detection of highest expression of the transfected gene on the seventh day in the lung, followed by the kidney, liver, heart, skin and spleen. Furthermore, by immunofluorescence UC-MSCs were detected in the peri-infarcted area; after fourteen days, it was detected that the transfected genes were most expressed in the lung, followed by the spleen, skin, heart, kidney and liver.4

Camerlingo C, 2021, carried out an experimental study in an AMI model in rabbits, performed thoracotomies on 5 specimens without inducing AMI and without providing any treatment, 10 animals were induced with AMI and buffered saline solution (PBS) was applied 4 weeks later), and 10 rabbits were administered 10 × 106 ADSCs, derived from epicardium, through injections into the peri-infarct myocardium. The group treated with ADSC presented an average improvement of 4.7%, one month after treatment, in LVEF (95% CI: 5.22, 4.11; p < 0.0001), 0.04 mm reduction in end-diastolic diameter (LVDd) [(95% CI: -0.016, -0.07; p = 0.006)], and 0.08 mm reduction in LVDs [(95% CI: -0.07, -0.097, p = 0.000001)], unlike the control group that presented a decrease of 3.4 % in LVEF (95% CI: -2.63, -4.14, p = 0.000085), 0.07 mm increase in LVDd (95% CI: 0.11, 0.19, p = 0.014), and 0.08 mm increase in LVDs (95% CI: 0.11, 0.047, p = 0.001), it was also observed that the ADSCs transfected with eGFP were located within the infarcted area, after its intramyocardial application and expressed troponin, tropomyosin and desmin, which suggests their differentiation in vivo in cardiomyocytes, these same cells formed new vessels, evidenced by the expression of VEGF.5

Kawamura M, 2015, conducted a preclinical study in a porcine model of post-AMI heart disease. After 4 weeks after the infarction was induced, a sternotomy was performed, and 1 × 108 BM human MSCs were applied directly to the infarcted area in the form of 10 cell layers, while in the control group, only the sternotomy was performed. In the subsequent follow-up, a better LVEF was observed in the experimental group, at 4 (51.8% ± 5.4% vs. 35.5% ± 1.9%) and 8 weeks (52.1% ± 3.4% vs. 34.2% ± 4.7%) of treatment. LVDs were lower in the experimental group, 4 weeks (25.6 ± 2.9 mm vs. 29.2 ± 1.3 mm) and 8 weeks (26.1– 2.7 mm vs. 30.3– 1.3 mm) after treatment. Cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, interstitial fibrosis, and vascularity, assessed with PAS staining, Picrosirius red staining, and immunohistochemistry for Von Willebrand factor, respectively, were better in the peri-infarct areas of the experimental group at 8 weeks of follow-up. The diameter of the cardiomyocyte was smaller in the experimental group (13 ± 1 μm vs. 20 ± 2 μm, p < 0.0001), there was less interstitial fibrosis (2.2% ± 0.3% vs. 6.7% ± 1.2%, p < 0.0001), and vascular density was higher (338 ± 59 units/mm2 vs. 139 ± 69 units/mm2, p < 0.001) in the same group. After this same period, the expression of the messenger RNA (mRNA) of VEGF and bFGF were higher in the experimental group (VEGF; 0.006 ± 0.004 vs. 0.0005 ± 0.0004, p < 0.05, bFGF; 0.05 ± 0.02 vs. 0.005 ± 0.004, p < 0.01), considering the GAPDH gene as a reference.9

Mathiasen A, 2015, conducted a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 60 patients affected by severe ischemic heart failure. He treated 40 patients with BM MSC (77.5±67.9 × 106), applied intramyocardially around the infarcted area, and 20 with placebo. He detected a better LVESV in the group treated with BM MSC, at six months of follow-up, the difference between groups was 13.0±12.9 mL (p < 0.001), the first group also presented better LVEF (6.2±3.8%, p < 0.0001) and better myocardial mass (5.7±7.7 g, p < 0.001). This effect was dose dependent, since the subgroup treated with more than 83x106 MSC BM presented better results in these parameters,10 and the effects could last up to 4 years.11

Bolli R, 2021, conducted a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial and applied 108 ± 28 × 106 BM MSC to 22 patients transendocardially. I did not detect significant differences in LVESV, LVEDV and LVEF at 6 and 12 months. of the treatment compared to the placebo group.12

Ulus T, 2020, carried out a randomized controlled trial, comparing three groups of patients with chronic ischemic cardiomyopathy (CIC), all treated with coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG), the first only underwent CABG, the second UC was also applied – intramyocardial allogeneic MSCs (21∼26 ×106), and the third additionally autologous bone marrow mononuclear (MN BM), approximately 70 × 107, by the same route. LVEF only improved in the group treated with UC-MSCs, in the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evaluation at 12 months of follow-up, in this same group a tendency to gain myocardial mass was observed during the follow-up period, 16 ± 10.6 g, evaluated by MRI. The greatest reduction in necrotic tissue was also noted in this group, 7.7%; as well as greatest distance traveled during 6 minutes, 102.5 ± 43.6 m. In conclusion, they indicated that therapy with UC-MSCs can promote the recovery of patients undergoing coronary revascularization.13

Qayyum A, 2013, carried out a multicenter double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase II trial in patients with heart failure due to ischemic causes, in which he applied 100 × 106 ADSCs intramyocardially to 54 patients and saline solution to 27, as controls. At 6 months of follow-up she found no significant differences in LVESV, LVEDV and LVEF.14

There are many ways to apply stem cells, the doses applied are different and the most opportune moment for their application is controversial, so these characteristics require a thorough evaluation, to promote their correct use and the greatest benefit for the patients with AMI.

Methods

Study setting and eligibility criteria of studies

This systematic review was performed following the recommendations of the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews, and AMSTAR 2 guidelines. A systematic search for randomized clinical trials, experimental studies was conducted. We included studies that evaluated the use of stem cells in the regenerative capacity after myocardial infarction.

Database and search strategy

We searched for randomized clinical trial studies published up to April 25, 2024, in Medline (PubMed) and Scopus. We combined various keywords, controlled vocabulary terms (e.g., MeSH and Emtree terms), and free terms following the PICO strategy (population: “Infarction Myocardial”; exposure: “Stem cell” (Table 1). The searches were not restricted by date or language. We included full-text articles and excluded observational studies, review articles, abstracts, case reports, letters, editorials, studies not available in full text, and duplicate publications. We included clinical or experimental studies evaluating the application of MSCs in models other than murine; studies reporting data on application time, dose and route of administration of MSCs after AMI.

Table 1. Search strategy.

SourceSearch strategy#
PubmeD(“Infarction Myocardial” OR “Infarctions Myocardial” OR “Myocardial Infarctions” OR “Cardiovascular Stroke” OR “Cardiovascular Strokes” OR “Stroke Cardiovascular” OR “Strokes Cardiovascular” OR “Myocardial Infarct” OR “Infarct Myocardial” OR “Infarcts Myocardial” OR “Myocardial Infarcts” OR “Heart Attack” OR “Heart Attacks”) AND (“Stem Cell Mesenchymal” OR “Stem Cells Mesenchymal” OR “Mesenchymal Stem Cell” OR “Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells” OR “Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell” OR “Bone Marrow Stromal Cells” OR “Bone Marrow Stromal Cell” OR “Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Multipotent” OR “Multipotent Bone Marrow Stromal Cell” OR “Multipotent Bone Marrow Stromal Cells” OR “Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells” OR “Adipose Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells” OR “Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells” OR “Adipose Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells” OR “Mesenchymal Stem Cells Adipose-Derived” OR “Mesenchymal Stem Cells Adipose Derived” OR “Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell” OR “Adipose Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell” OR “Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell” OR “Adipose Tissue Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cell” OR “Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells” OR “Adipose Tissue Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells” OR “Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells” OR “Adipose Tissue Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells” OR “Adipose Tissue-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cell” OR “Adipose Tissue Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cell” OR “Mesenchymal Stromal Cells” OR “Mesenchymal Stromal Cell” OR “Stromal Cell Mesenchymal” OR “Stromal Cells Mesenchymal” OR “Multipotent Mesenchymal Stromal Cells” OR “Multipotent Mesenchymal Stromal Cell” OR “Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Multipotent” OR “Mesenchymal Progenitor Cell” OR “Mesenchymal Progenitor Cells” OR “Progenitor Cell Mesenchymal” OR “Progenitor Cells Mesenchymal” OR “Wharton Jelly Cells” OR “Wharton’s Jelly Cells” OR “Wharton’s Jelly Cell” OR “Whartons Jelly Cells” OR “Bone Marrow Stromal Stem Cells”).98

On 25th Abril 2024, we systematically searched the latest available version of papers published in Pubmed (98 -search). We exported all retrieved references from databases to Rayyan QCRI (Rayyan Systems Inc®, MA, USA) for de-duplication, after removing duplicates, two authors screening the search results independently after turning the blinding mode on. Discrepancies were resolved by a third researcher in a meeting. References from retrieved papers were screened for additional articles. Any conflict regarding the extracted information was resolved through consensus.

The present review was authorized in March 2024 by the ethics committee of the University of Lima, who notified their approval by email to the main researcher, in order to begin the bibliographic search in Scopus and Medline. This study was approved by the institutional research ethics committee of the University of Lima, through opinion number 18 of August 26, 2024.

The results will be presented in tabular form, with each row representing a separate study. The table will include the study design, the characteristics of the study population, and the results.

Data obtained from the selected articles were analyzed to assess the effect of the timing of dosing and route of administration of MSCs on their regenerative capacity after AMI. Special attention was paid to clinical outcomes related to left ventricular function, diastolic and systolic volume, and vascular density.

Results

A total of 98 articles were identified in the primary search. After screening titles and abstracts, 11 articles were selected for full-text review. Of these, nine clinical studies were included in the qualitative assessment (see Table 2).

Table 2. Dose, timing and route of administration of mesenchymal stem cells.

AuthorCountryYearStudio typePos time AMIApplication routeDoseFindings
Zhang R et al.China2021Single-blind multicenter randomized trial
BM MSCs: 21 cases
Control: 22 cases
23.24 ± 7.69 daysCoronary artery perfusion3.31 ± 1.70 × 106 BM MSCs/4 mlThere were no differences in the LVESV, LVEDV, LVEF between both groups (p > 0.05) at 12 months follow-up.
There were no differences in myocardial perfusion and the rate of metabolic defects at six months of follow-up between both groups (p>0.05).
Gathier WA et al.Netherlands2019Experimental medium weight: 72 kg (IQR: 68-76)
RCVI: 06
PCI: 06
4 weeksRetrograde venous
Coronary artery perfusion
1.6 × 106 (IQR: 1.3 –1.7)
2.4 × 106 (IQR: 1.6 –2.4)
In vivo retention: median 2.89% (IQR: 2.14–3.86) in the group RCVI versus 13.74% (IQR: 10.20–15.41) in the PCI group.
Ex vivo retention was 2.55% (IQR: 1.86-3.16) in the RCVI group versus 39.40% (IQR: 38.54-44.64) in the PCI group (p = 0.002).
In the RCVI group, coronary sinus dissection was observed in three of the six pigs, three animals had a pericardial effusion and hematoma.
One animal in the PCI group showed no flow directly after infusion of the cells, probably due to thrombus formation.
Mori D et al.Japan2018Experimental study: Porcine model of AMI
6 pigs in each group (20-25 kg)
4 weeksPericardial by means of a spraySol. A: 1 × 108 ADSCs human/HBSS/1.4 mL+ fibrinogen, 48 mg/600 uL
Sol. B: thrombin 180 UI/600uL+HBSS (1.4 mL)
4 weeks: The ADSCs group had a greater LVEF that control, LVDs was lower in the ADSCs group.
ESPVR y EDPVR preserved.
CFR was higher in the ADSCs group.
8 weeks: Less fibrosis in the ADSCs group
Smaller diameter of peri-infarction cardiomyocytes
Greater capillarity at the edge of the infarcted area.
Kim SH et al.South Korea2018Single blind randomized trial
BM MSCs: 14 cases
Control: 12 cases
30 ± 1.3 daysCoronary artery perfusion7.2 ± 0.9 × 107 BM MSCsLVEF was better in the experimental group at 4 and 12 months after treatment (8.8% ± 2.9% vs. 4.8% ± 1.9%, p = .031; 9.9% ± 5.2% vs 6.5% ± 2.7%, p = 0.048)
Lim M et al.China2018Experimental in a pig model of IMA
control:03
low dose:04
High dose:04
120 minutes and 4 weeks after the IMAVenousLow dose: 0.5 × 106 UC MSCs/kg)
High dose: 1.5 × 106 UC MSCs/kg)
Trend towards improvement LVEF in both experimental groups, at 4 and 8 weeks after AMI.
Improvement in the infarcted area, but not in the flow at 4 and 8 weeks, in both experimental groups.
Collagen reduction, 3.5 times in the treated groups.
Lower expression of TNFα, in the infarcted area and its border, in the group treated with low doses. In this same group, IL6 was lower at the border.
Greater expression of VEGF mRNA, at the border of AMI, in the group treated with high doses. The expression of CD31 was higher in the infarcted area and its border, in this same group
UC MSCs were detected in the peri-infarct area.
Camerlingo C et.alTurkey2021Experimental in rabbits: “simulated” group: 05
Control - group: 10
ADSCs group: 10
Average Weight: 3-3.5 kg
4 weeksIntramyocardial10 × 106 ADSCsADSCs group one month after treatment: increase of 4.7% in the LVEF (95% CI: 5.22, 4.11, p < 0.0001), 0.04 mm of reduction in LVIDd (95% CI: -0.016, -0.07, p = 0.006), and 0.08 mm of reduction in LVIDs (95% CI: -0.07, -0.097, p = 0.000001)
Control group: reduction of 3.4% in the LVEF (95% CI: -2.63, -4.14, p = 0.000085), 0.07 mm of increase in LVIDd (95% CI: 0.11, 0.19, p = 0.014), and 0.08 mm of increase in LVIDs (95% CI: 0.11, 0.047, p = 0.001)
The ADSCs GFP+ were located within the infarcted area, and expressed troponin, tropomyosin, desmin, and VEGF.
Kawamura M et al.Japan2015Experimental: pig model (20-25 kg)
Experimental group: 06
Control group: 06
4 weeksCellular sheets on the epicardium1 × 108 BM MSCs
distributed in ten sheets
Better LVEF in the experimental group: 4 weeks (51.8% ± 5.4% vs. 35.5% ± 1.9%) and 8 weeks (52.1% ± 3.4% vs. 34.2% ± 4.7%)
Smaller LVDs in the experimental group, 4 weeks (25.6 ± 2.9 mm vs.29.2 ± 1.3 mm) and 8 weeks (26.1 – 2.7mm vs. 30.3 – 1.3 mm)
Smaller cardiomyocyte diameter in the experimental group (13 ±1 μm vs. 20 ± 2 μm, p < 0.0001), less interstitial fibrosis (2.2% ± 0.3% vs. 6.7% ± 1.2%, p < 0.0001), and greater vascular density (338 ± 59 units/mm2 vs. 139 ± 69 units/mm2, p < 0.001) in the same group.
Greater expression of mRNA of VEGF and bFGF in the peri-infarction area of the heart.
Mathiasen A et al.Denmark2015Double-blind randomized controlled clinical trialDoes not detailIntramyocardial77.5 ± 67.9 × 106 BM MSCsAt six months of follow-up, better results in the BM MSC group: LVESV, difference between the groups of 13.0 ± 12.9 mL (p < 0.001), LVEF (6.2% ± 3.8%, p < 0.0001) and better myocardial mass (5.7 ± 7.7 g, p < 0.001).
This effect was dose dependent, since the subgroup treated with > de 83 × 106 BM MSC, presented better results in these parameters, and the effects could last up to 4 years.
Bayes-Genis A et al.Germany2024Double-blind randomized, phase I clinical trialDoes not detailEpicardium7 to 15 × 108 cells per doseRecruitment of activated CCR2+ monocytes in peripheral blood increased at day 3 post-surgery in both groups compared to baseline (+6.1 ± 5.7% in control, vs +6.5 ± 1.8% in PeriCord, p = 0.89.

Due to the high heterogeneity of the results with different interventions, doses, a meta-analysis could not be performed.

Study characteristics

  • 1. Intracoronary administration of MSCs

    Zhang R. et al. (China, 2021) and Kim SH. et al. (South Korea, 2018) conducted trials with intracoronary administration of MSCs after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Zhang administered 3.31 ± 1.70×106 bone marrow MSCs without observing significant differences in ventricular function or myocardial perfusion at the 12-month follow-up. In contrast, Kim administered a considerably higher dose (7.2 ± 0.9 ± 0.9 × 107 MSCs) and reported significant improvements in ventricular function at 4 and 12 months. These findings suggest that a higher dose might be more effective for cardiac regeneration.

  • 2. Experimental studies in porcine models

    Gathier WA et al. (The Netherlands, 2019) and Mori D et al. (Japan, 2018) explored different methods of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) delivery in porcine models of acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Gathier employed both retrograde coronary venous infusion and percutaneous catheterization, noting a higher retention of MSCs with the latter method. Mori applied MSCs by epicardial spray, demonstrating improvements in ventricular function and a reduction in fibrosis. This indicates that direct application to damaged tissue may be especially beneficial.

  • 3. Intramyocardial applications in experimental studies

    In 2021, Camerlingo C et al. conducted a study in Turkey where MSCs were applied directly into myocardial tissue. In 2015, Mathiasen A et al. conducted a similar study in Denmark. In the study conducted by Camerlingo, 107 MSCs derived from epicardial adipose tissue were administered to rabbits, resulting in improvements in ventricular function one month after treatment. Mathiasen employed an even higher dose (77.5 ± 67.9 × 106 MSCs) in a clinical trial, resulting in significant improvements in end-systolic volume, ventricular function, and myocardial mass. This highlights the importance of dose in therapeutic outcomes.

  • 4. A comparison of different routes of administration

    Kawamura M. et al. (Japan, 2015) and Lim M. et al. (China, 2018) conducted a comparative analysis of different routes of administration and doses of MSCs. Kawamura applied 108 MSCs directly into the epicardium in the form of cell sheets, resulting in significant improvements in ventricular function and cardiac morphology. Lim explored intravenous administration with low and high doses in a porcine model of AMI, noting a trend toward improvement in ventricular function. However, without statistically significant results, this may reflect the importance of route and dose of administration on treatment efficacy.

  • 5. Double allogeneic human engineered tissue graft on damaged heart

    Bayes-Genis A et al, (German, 2024) included 12 patients, 2 of whom were open-masked roll-in patients and 10 were double-blinded randomized patients. then the patients were treated with PeriCord, product involved seeding allogeneic WJ-MSCs, the active substance, at a dose of 7 to 15 × 106 cells per dose were applied by epicardium. No significant changes in secondary outcomes, such as quality of life or cardiac function, were found in patients who received PeriCord.

Discussion

The reviewed studies show significant variability in outcomes based on the MSCs’ administration route and dosage. Intracoronary and intramyocardial administration, particularly at higher doses, tend to yield the most promising results regarding ventricular function improvement and fibrosis reduction. Most studies administered MSCs four weeks post-AMI, likely due to the time required for cell culture.

Two authors used the PCI route and MSCs derived from bone marrow, but only Kim SH et al.8 obtained significant clinical results when comparing the experimental group, treated with 7.2 ± 0.9 × 107 BM MSCs, with the control group; while Zhang R et al.,1 did not detect differences between the group treated with 3.31 ± 1.70 × 106 BM MSCs/4 ml and its control (see Table 1). Given that both authors used the same source of autologous cells, and applied them at similar times, it is likely that the differences are due to the doses used, indicating that a minimum dose of cells is necessary to show a relevant clinical effect, which for The studies described probably correspond to 1 × 106 BM MSCs/kg, if we consider an average weight of 70 kg, to this it is important to add that the in vivo retention percentage of this pathway is 13.74%.7 In general, there appear to be common mechanisms of MSCs, which include the secretion of exosomes and the inhibition of the TGF-β/Wnt/Smad signaling pathway,15 a key pathway in promoting fibrosis in many diseases, including cardiac diseases,16 that is, they have an antifibrotic effect. Likewise, the pathological replacement process of type I collagen, in the infarcted cardiac tissue, generates the formation of a scar that causes the loss of cardiac contractility, thus the production of HGF and VEGF by the MSCs, reduces fibrosis and promotes vasculogénesis, respectively, as well as the blockade of the TGF-β/Wnt/Smad signaling pathway, must be timely because early inhibition can induce cardiac dysfunction and greater mortality.17

The intramyocardial route was used by Camerlingo C et al.,5 who in an experimental study in rabbits, applied MSCs derived from epicardial adipose tissue, four weeks after AMI was induced, and detected improvements in LVEF of 4.7% (95% CI: 5.22, 4.11, p < 0.0001), 0.04 mm reduction in LVIDd (95% CI: -0.016, -0.07, p=0.006), and 0.08 mm reduction in LVIDs applying a dose of 10 × 106 ADSCs. Another of the authors, who used this route, Mathiasen A et.al, in a double-blind trial, detected differences between the groups in LVESV, of 13.0± 12.9 mL (p < 0.001), LVEF (6.2 ± 3.8%, p < 0.0001) and better myocardial mass (5.7 ± 7.7 g, p < 0.001), using a dose of 77.5 ± 67.9 × 106 of BM MSC,10 to which we must add that the probable retention of the cells in the myocardium may vary from 14% ± 4%, if applied immediately after the infarction, to 4.5% ± 1.1%, if applied a week later, according to experimental evidence.18 Considering that both authors used different sources of MSCs, but with positive findings, it is likely that, analogous to the PCI route, the quantity applied is the relevant factor to obtain favorable clinical results; which for the experimental study would correspond to 3 × 106 of ADSCs/kg, considering the average weight of 3 kg of the rabbits; and from 1 to 2 × 106 of BM MSC/kg, in the case of the clinical trial, if we consider an average weight of 70 kg. However, the transdifferentiation capacity of ADSCs, derived from epicardial tissue, is in the experimental study.5 In this study, it was possible to verify in vivo the expression of cardiac markers in the applied ADSCs, a fact that, although it has been a source of controversy, has been achieved in vitro, using decellularized matrix of bovine myocardium,19 without the need for prior genetic modification. in the cells, so it is likely that said transdifferentiation has been promoted by the microenvironment in which the ADSCs were immersed. Transdifferentiation has also been observed in a murine model of AMI treated with UC-MSCs and applied intramyocardially.20

A revolutionary way to treat AMI is through the topical route. Mori D et al.6 used 1 × 108 human ADSCs, applying them by spray on the infarcted area, in a porcine model of AMI, which on average was 4 × 108 ADSCs/kg of weight, and detected an improvement in LVEF and LVDs; less fibrosis, less dilation and greater capillarity around the infarcted area. On the other hand, Kawamura M et al.9 applied 1 × 108 BM MSCs directly on the epicardium, in the form of cell sheets, at a dose similar to the previous author with similar results. Considering that both authors applied the treatments in comparable situations, approximately one month after AMI, it is evident that a bloody application of the cells is not necessary to obtain favorable results, which enhances the paracrine effect of the MSCs, which is obtained thanks to the release of extracellular vesicles containing pro-angiogenic factors such as VEGF, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), angiopoietin, metalloproteases and microRNAs (miR-125a, miR-377), which promote the formation of new vessels. Likewise, molecular messages are transmitted through these vesicles that promote the polarization of monocytes towards type 2 macrophages (anti-inflammatory); and the overexpression of genes such as GATA-4 or Akt, which have an antiapoptotic effect,21 all of which favors the recovery of cardiac tissue. Bayes-Genis A et al., (German, 2024) used a similar route to the previous ones, however there were no differences in the groups evaluated, probably because they used a lower dose (7-15 × 106 MSCs).22

Another route described in the present review was the systemic venous route, which was evaluated by Lim M et.al, 2018, in a porcine model of AMI,4 using low and high doses, 0.5 × 106 UC MSCs/Kg and 1.5 × 106 UC MSCs/kg, respectively, with discrete improvement in LVEF and less fibrosis in both groups, lower expression of the inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6, and higher expression of CD31 in the peri-infarct border of the group treated with high doses, but with results quantitatively less forceful than the other pathways, which could be explained by the poor myocardial retention of MSCs, because the cells are retained mainly in the lung.23 Experimentally, this retention has been estimated at 1.2% ± 0.6%,18 despite being a safe application route, according to the meta-analysis of Thompson M, 2020,24 it still requires the evaluation of new doses, to rule out, whether its increase could improve the therapeutic effect of this route of application.

Ethics and consent for third party data

The present review was authorized in March 2024 by the ethics committee of the University of Lima, who notified their approval by email to the main researcher, in order to begin the bibliographic search in Scopus and Medline. This study was approved by the institutional research ethics committee of the University of Lima, through opinion number 18 of August 26, 2024. The initial approval allowed the start of the bibliographic search and it was in March. Since the authors requested an official report, the ethical approval had to be issued in August 2024 because it could not be issued retrospectively.

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Tello Vera S, Failoc Rojas VE and León Trujillo FJ. Effect of the dose, timing, and route of administration of mesenchymal stem cells on their regenerative capacity after myocardial infarction: A systematic review [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2024, 13:1065 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.153131.1)
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