Keywords
Servant Leadership, PRISMA, Public Sector, Systematic Literature Review
Servant leadership delivers important reforms to the increasingly complex public utility system. This systematic review seeks to incorporate the latest six years of articles on geographic divisions, conceptual definitions, measuring techniques, theoretical frameworks, and nomological networks (antecedents, mediators, outcomes, and moderators) in the public sector. The risk of bias was evaluated using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and ROBINS-I, and employing automated techniques such as Rayyan for screening. Using PRISMA’s review approach, this comprehensive synthesis of 51 relevant public sector-specific conceptual and empirical studies across six academic electronic databases (Taylor & Francis, Sage, Scopus, Springer Link, Web of Science, and Wiley) shows that servant leadership is critical for establishing a prosocial workforce. This review discovered that the global construct of servant leadership (SL-7) scale has been the most often utilised measure of servant leadership in public sector-specific studies recently. Social exchange theory remains the predominant explanation for the impact of servant leadership on specific variables. The findings also illustrate a generally positive influence of servant leadership. Moreover, this review provides limitations and suggestions for future studies by summarising elements that have received less attention.
Servant Leadership, PRISMA, Public Sector, Systematic Literature Review
Leading morality is essential for organisational sustainability and social well-being.1,2 Servant leadership’s belief in “sacrificing oneself for others” is more congruent with the moral management philosophy.3–5 It emphasises “moral conviction” and “awareness of autonomy”.6 Servant leadership follows the principle that “the highest priority is to serve others rather than personal needs”.7 Even though researchers have improved its definition, Greenleaf’s viewpoint has persisted.8,9
As for the Societal Impact, the public sector includes both public services and public enterprises,10 providing public commodities and government services.11 It is dedicated to benefiting society rather than just individual users of its services.12 This aligns with the principle of servant leadership, which emphasizes the well-being and development of the community.1 By studying servant leadership in the public sector, the research can explore how this leadership style enhances public welfare and societal benefits.
As for the Core Philosophical Alignment, Servant leadership is rooted in the philosophy of morality, focusing on serving others and prioritizing their needs.13,14 This philosophical core resonates strongly with the mission of the public sector, which is to serve the public good and address societal needs.15,16 Investigating servant leadership in this context can reveal how ethical and moral leadership practices can be effectively implemented in public services.
As for the Operational Need, the unique operational requirements of the public sector, including transparency, accountability, and service delivery, make it an ideal setting to study servant leadership.23 Public sector organizations often face complex challenges that require leaders who are adaptable, empathetic, and committed to the greater good.15 Researching servant leadership in this environment can provide insights into how these leaders navigate such challenges and drive positive change.10
In summary, focusing on the public sector for this research is justified by the alignment of servant leadership principles with the public sector’s function, mission and operational needs. Therefore, this research aims to examine the evolution of servant leadership specifically in the public sector.
Servant leadership has been researched in various businesses and cultures, including the public sector.17 It has generally produced favourable results, such as improving job satisfaction,18 organisational citizenship behaviour,19 and establishing an ethical climate.20 As more academic research shows a link between servant leadership and public sector results,21 there is an urgent need to include information from existing research in a systematic review.
However, most systematic literature reviews on servant leadership focus on reviewing research outcomes before 2019, with essentially no summary of the current research state on servant leadership over the last six years.22 Research on the jurisprudential networks of former servant leaders in the public sector has not been thoroughly and methodically reviewed. [1] The purpose of this review is to depict the value of servant leadership in the public sector by concluding its theoretical framework, measurement tools, and nomological networks (antecedents, mechanisms, outcomes, and moderators) using the PRISMA review method.
This review will follow the subsequent research questions:
1. How is servant leadership conceptualized in the public sector literature?
2. Which underpinning theories guide servant leadership research in the public sector?
3. Which methodologies are used in studying servant leadership in the public sector?
4. What antecedents, mediating mechanisms, outcomes, and boundary conditions of servant leadership are investigated in public sector research?
This systematic literature review is organised as follows by the research questions outlined above. First, the philosophy of servant leadership and its role in public sector management are explored. Next, the review technique is described, including the search procedures and analytic methods. The findings of the analysis are then provided, together with a nomological network. Finally, the discussion section summarizes the key findings and offers suggestions for the future.
According to Virtanen and Tammeaid (2020), servant leadership is more “de-leadership” than traditional leadership styles.23 Greenleaf described it as a “conscious lifestyle”, which begins with self-awareness of serving desire,6 laying the groundwork for later research.1 Spears defined servant leadership as “listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualisation, vision, management, commitment to people’s development, and community building”, which has been disputed subsequently.24
Some focus on optimisation, such as van Dierendonck and colleagues (2011),25 who compiled six aspects of servant leadership: empowerment, management, authenticity, humility, interpersonal acceptance, and guidance,14 which is more concise than Spears’.26 Others focused on comparisons. Eva et al. more accurately defined servant leadership as three aspects: motivation (“other-oriented leadership approach”), model (“one-on-one interaction between leaders and followers”), and mentality (“overall concern for the well-being of others”), after comparing servant leadership and transformational leadership, authentic leadership, and moral leadership. Although different definitions have been created, the construct of servant leadership has yet to be proven, raising doubts about the validity of corresponding empirical study findings.17,27
Leadership is frequently emphasised as a key aspect in the change process of public organisations, just as it is in private organisations.28,29 Unlike the private sector, public organisations are typically distinguished by bureaucratic structures and formal regulations,30 putting leaders to the test.31
Servant leadership originated in the 1970s. During this period, the shaping of leadership roles gradually shifted from job roles focusing on organisational performance to service roles focusing on organisational behaviour to achieve reciprocity between leaders and followers. Regarding adaptability, servant leadership is considered a natural model for public organisations.32 In recent years, leadership research has shifted its focus from the personal attributes of leadership style to the relational attributes of leadership style.26 Under the constraints of job attributes and job functions, leaders of public organisations have more opportunities to demonstrate service intentions than leaders of private organisations.26
Servant leadership originated in the 1970s. To promote reciprocity between leaders and followers, leadership roles were gradually modified from work roles focusing on organisational performance to service roles focusing on organisational behaviour. In terms of adaptability, servant leadership is regarded as a natural paradigm for public sectors.32 Recently, leadership research has switched attention from leading qualities to relational attributions.26 Leaders of public organisations have more opportunities to exhibit service intents than leaders of private organisations, subject to obligatory limits.33 Therefore, shaping the leadership “servant” position is more reasonable in the public sector.20,34–38
Public sectors need an ethical leadership style. Servant leadership has emerged as an ethical leadership style over the last two decades.39 Unlike transformative leadership of the same emergence, servant leadership focuses on constructing learning organisations. More and more scholars have demonstrated the impact of servant leadership on the ethical atmosphere20 and suggest that it can guide organisational ethical norms to provide services more effectively.40
PRISMA facilitates critical appraisal by other researchers and practitioners by providing clear and comprehensive reporting, which enables others to replicate the review process, thus contributing to the body of evidence and knowledge in the field.41–43 PRISMA is widely recognized and accepted by top academic journals, making it a preferred choice for researchers aiming to publish their systematic reviews and meta-analyses.44–48
By adhering to PRISMA guidelines, researchers can ensure that their reviews are conducted with a high level of methodological rigor.43,49 This helps in minimizing biases, enhancing the validity of the findings, and providing a clear, structured approach to reviewing the literature.50 Therefore, to ensure a reproducible, rigorous, and transparent procedure, this review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement.49
There is no protocol exists for this systematic review, a thorough literature search was done across six academic electronic databases (Taylor & Francis, Sage, Scopus, Springer Link, Web of Science, and Wiley) to find published research on servant leadership in the public sector. The selection of these six databases ensures a comprehensive, multidisciplinary, and high-quality literature search.
Specifically, Taylor & Francis is a leading publisher of scholarly journals across disciplines.51 Sage is known for its strong portfolio in social sciences.52 Scopus is one of the largest abstract and citation databases of peer-reviewed literature, ensuring an inclusive search.53 SpringerLink offers access to a vast collection of academic research.54 Web of Science includes citation indexing and analysis, invaluable for understanding the research landscape.55 Wiley offers a diverse collection accessing to high-quality research that are pertinent to the search topic.56 Therefore, each database offers unique strengths in terms of coverage, relevance, and access to influential research, making them collectively suitable for an in-depth review of servant leadership in the public sector.
Keywords were combined with AND/OR Boolean phrases to search the literature. To ensure that the literature in the various contexts of the public sector was covered as comprehensively as possible, full-text articles containing the words “servant leadership” AND (“public agency” OR “public sector” OR “public administration” OR “public department” OR “government” OR “public service” OR “public centre”) were searched (Details are shown in Table 1).
The following criteria were required for research to be included in this review: First, as with prior reviews,25,57,58 this review exclusively considers research written in English. Second, it omitted works published before 2019, as they were almost completely covered in earlier reviews.22,59–61 Third, book chapters, book reviews, reviews, lectures, brief communications, conference papers, encyclopedias, editorials in non-academic journals, and other non-research article genres were removed to ensure the review’s quality. Finally, the articles were restricted to research contexts in the public sector (Details are shown in Table 2).
All content searches were done on the articles created during the search process to ensure that no records were overlooked. The complete texts of the research related to the titles and abstracts were then collected to identify the final publications relevant to the current study’s predefined research questions.62
The publications were sorted based on their title, year of publication, research environment (country), research design (conceptual, empirical), sample size, type, and results. The article parameters were summarised in Excel to systematically synthesise research on public sectors servant leadership.49 To prepare data for synthesis, we first dealt with missing summary statistics by contacting the corresponding authors for missing values. Where data could not be retrieved, the studies were excluded from the analysis. Krippendorff claims that content analysis has the advantage of “providing replicable and valid inferences from text (or other meaningful content) to the context in which it is used”.63 The present research analyses the content of writings on servant leadership in the public sector literature.64
First, an inductive approach was used to construct first-order codes describing servant-leadership traits (e.g., “emotional healing”).65 The appropriate first-order codes were then grouped into themes (N = 32) that more broadly characterized servant-leadership behaviours (e.g., “being attuned to other people’s feelings and activities”). Finally, these themes (second-order codes) were grouped into seven categories: “Other Oriented”, “Community Vision”, “Relationship Moderator”, “Trust with Empowerment”, “Professional Convincible”, “Moral Model”, and “Self-regulated”. Next, this study extracted research variables (antecedents, mechanisms, outcomes, and moderators), servant leadership measures, and underpinning theories from a subsample of quantitative articles (N = 45) and mapped a nomological network of servant leadership research in the public sector.22
The certainty of the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed using the GRADE approach. The risk of bias in the 51 studies included was assessed using validated tools appropriate for the study types. Randomised controlled trials were evaluated using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool, while non-randomised studies were assessed with the ROBINS-I tool. Two independent reviewers analysed each study across critical domains: selection, performance, detection, attrition, and reporting biases. Discrepancies between reviewers were resolved through discussion, and a third reviewer was consulted when necessary to achieve consensus. Automation tools, Rayyan, were utilised for the initial screening of abstracts and titles to identify relevant studies and exclude irrelevant or duplicate records, ensuring a streamlined process. The risk-of-bias examination was conducted manually to guarantee thorough assessment and precision. This rigorous method guaranteed the dependability of the incorporated studies and their results.
The electronic database search yielded 7,312 published scientific records. After removing 126 non-English records, 4,904 papers published more than six years ago, 1,442 papers that were not research papers, 734 records not related to the public sector, and 45 duplicate records, a sample of 51 eligible scientific manuscripts was generated, which will be included in the qualitative synthesis (Details are illustrated in Figure 1).
The research that was eventually screened out included one conceptual paper,66 five qualitative investigations, and forty-five quantitative studies. No studies with mixed methods designs were screened.67 Quantitative research reviewed (N = 45) analyzed data at several levels of quantification, validating the sample’s diversity. Flotman and Grobler (2020) investigated a scale.68 Five studies collected data from both employees and supervisors,69–73 examining dyadic relationships using structural equation modelling techniques.74,75
Five trials used numerous time points.76 Regarding the sampling topics, two research remained fixed at separate survey dates, studying employee ideas.77,78 The following three research varied in time, but they mostly double-sampled employees and leaders to prevent common technique bias.69,70,73 Most research controlled for one month,69,70,78 while two studies used half a month73 and a year.77 Most studies limit the sampling frequency to three times or less. Most research designs employ two-time sampling,69,70,73 while the remaining two use three-time sample.77,78
The sample size for survey-based quantitative studies varied from 123 to 9,547 people (mean = 737, median = 347). Table 3 displays the geographical distribution and study design of the empirical studies examined. Empirical research on servant leadership in the public sector demonstrates a continental spreading trend toward poorer countries. According to Table 3, most articles came from Asia (N=31), followed by Africa (N=7), Europe (N=5), and North America (N=2). In terms of country distribution, it was conducted in 19 countries, with Pakistan (20.0%), China (15.6%), South Korea (8.9%), and Vietnam (8.9%) receiving the most. Compared to research characteristics before 2019,22 the research background of servant leadership in the last six years has been increasingly oriented toward developing countries. This shift reflects the promotion of servant leadership methods in developing nations, as well as the application of servant leadership to resource management practices.64
The data collection strategy for empirical research on servant leadership in the public sector is cross-sectional. Table 3 shows that 88.9 percent of the 45 empirical research used cross-sectional data collecting. Asia has 27 articles, Africa has 7, Europe has four, and North America has two. On the contrary, the current study does not use the Time-Lagged data-gathering approach, and future research should focus more on this method. Table 3 shows that only five studies used the Time-Lagged data-gathering strategy. Four of them are in Asia, while one is in Europe. Overall, research on the Time-Lagged data collection approach is limited (Details are shown in Table 3).
Three interviews and two case studies are among the five studies on qualitative servant leadership in the public sector. The two case studies are a longitudinal case study and a qualitative case-based comparative analysis.26 In comparison to the quantity of quantitative studies conducted over the last six years, qualitative research on servant leadership in the public sector is limited.
The five qualitative studies discuss the characteristics of servant leadership in public relations,65 the possible conditions for servant leadership,66 the practical benefits of servant leadership,67 the potential impact on the internalization process of servant leadership,26 and the changes that may be brought about by the application of servant leadership.68 The research viewpoints are rather diverse and have research potential.
The sample sizes used in these qualitative investigations range from 3 to 159. Three interview studies decided to sample leadership,65–67 whereas two case studies chose to sample ordinary personnel of two public businesses and three public utility departments. Furthermore, all four qualitative investigations addressed the same country setting. The only case-based comparison study examined local government agencies in two nations and one city.68 The only published conceptual study on servant leadership looked at the conditions and role of servant leadership in public education, highlighting the possibility and relevance of developing servant leadership among educators.
Themes were identified and refined into categories to give a synthesis of the concept of servant leadership in the public sector literature ( Table 4). The content analysis of this article revealed second-order themes (N=32), which were eventually split into seven categories (“Other Oriented”, “Community Vision”, “Relationship Moderator”, “Trust with Empowerment”, “Professional Convincible”, “Moral Model”, “Self-regulated”). These categories were thought to describe servant leadership in the public sector research examined.
In addition to the self- and follower-assessment methodologies indicated in the previous study, servant leadership qualities are measured.69–73 Most empirical studies on servant leadership in the public sector rely on follower assessment. Individual studies have also used leader self-assessment approaches.96–99
Table 5 lists the appropriate single-perspective assessment measures in the last six years. Most studies choose to evaluate from followers, with the global construct of servant leadership (SL-7) scale developed by Liden et al. (2015) being the most popular among researchers (32.4%),111 followed by Ehrhart’s 7 Dimension scale, which has been used in 24.3% of studies The Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) created by Van Dierendonck and Nuijten (2011) is slightly less popular (16.2%).25
Rating from | Name | Authors | Items | Utilisation | Usage |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Employee | 7 Dimension scale | Ehrhart9 | 14 | 21,112–118 | 24.3% |
The global construct of servant leadership (SL-7) | Liden et al.111 | 7 | 68,78,118–127 | 32.4% | |
The Servant Leadership Scale | Liden et al.8 | 28 | 75,128,129 | 8.1% | |
Servant Leadership Survey (SLS) | Van Dierendonck & Nuijten25 | 30 | 77,130–133 | 16.2% | |
A Commination scale | Dennis & Bocarnea61 | 8 | 134 | 2.7% | |
The ESLS | Reed et al.157 | 25 | 113 | 2.7% | |
Statements relating to servant leadership | Van Dierendonck et al.156 | 18 | 136 | 2.7% | |
Servant Leadership Short Scale | Liden et al.19 | 7 | 137 | 2.7% | |
Leader themselves | Servant leadership practices in a school scale | James Laub158 | 98 | 2.7% | |
Servant Leadership Questionnaire | Liden et al.8 | 85 | 2.7% | ||
Sendjaya et al.60 | 6 | 86 | 2.7% |
According to Table 6, servant leadership theory has been completely utilised (25.5% usage), manifesting a beneficial impact generally. Social exchange theory and social learning theory have been frequently employed to explain the mediating link associated with servant leadership conduct (15.7% and 13.7%, respectively). The moderating relationship is extensively explained using resource conservation theory (5.9% usage). Simultaneously, self-determination theory is frequently used to describe the impact of servant leadership on subordinate attitudes and actions.
Theory & Usage (%) | Relationships Addressed in the Literature |
---|---|
Servant Leadership Theory (25.5%) | The impact of servant leadership on job performance115,123,129,132,137 The impact of servant leadership on workgroup innovative behaviours116,118 The impact of servant leadership on organisational learning culture96 The impact of servant leadership on work engagement72 The impact of servant leadership on organisational behaviour21 The impact of servant leadership on rule breaking behaviours112 The impact of servant leadership on proactive service behaviour (PSB)127 The impact of servant leadership on job satisfaction130 |
Social Exchange Theory (15.7%) | The impact of servant leadership on organisational citizenship behaviour.21 The mediation of leader-member exchange between servant leadership and proactive behaviours75 The mediation of job satisfaction between servant leadership and job performance132 The mediation of perceived organisational support between servant leadership and work engagement72 The mediation of trust in leader between servant leadership and employees' organisational citizenship behaviours70 The mediation of trust in leader between servant leadership and employees’ organisational deviant behaviour78 The dual mediation of psychological ownership (PO) and person–organisations fit between servant leadership and employee affective commitment (AC)122 The mediation of work engagement between servant leadership and employees' extra-role behaviors (innovative work behavior, organizational citizenship behavior, and creativity)119 |
Social Learning Theory (13.7%) | The mediation of perceived organisational politics between servant leadership and organisational citizenship behaviour21 The impact of servant leadership on employee voice behaviour73 The mediation of learning behaviour between servant leadership and cognitive uncertainty131 The mediation of ethical climate between servant leadership and public service motivation117 The mediation of leader motivating language between servant leadership and work engagement72 The impact of servant leadership on service-oriented behaviours121 The mediation of employee performance between servant leadership and public service motivation120 |
Conservation of Resource Theory (5.9%) | The moderation of follower proactive personality between servant leadership and follower positive outcomes (psychological resilience and ownership)114 The moderation of perceived organisational politics (POP) between servant leadership and employee performance70 The mediation of psychological safety between servant leadership and burnout126 |
Self-Determination Theory (5.9%) | The impact of servant leadership on public service motivation117 The impact of servant leadership on work engagement118 The impact of servant leadership on service attitude138 |
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (3.9%) | The moderation impact of leader-member exchange between servant leadership and employ voice behaviour73 The impact of servant leadership on proactive behaviours75 |
The Job Demands-Resource Theory (3.9%) | The dual mediation of leader motivating language and perceived organisational support between servant leadership and work engagement72 The mediation of employee resources ((i.e., job autonomy, goal specificity, public service motivation [PSM], and organisational trust) between servant leadership and work engagement118 |
Social Cognitive Theory (3.9%) | The mediation of self-efficacy between servant leadership and employee’s organisational deviant behaviour78 The mediation of public service motivation between servant leadership and employee’s innovative behaviour71 |
Social Identity Theory (3.9%) | The impact of servant leadership on cognitive uncertainty131 The impact of servant leadership on public service motivation133 |
Recognition Theory (2%) | The mediation of recognition and emotion regulation between servant leadership and emotional well-being97 |
Interpersonal Leadership Theory (2%) | The impact of servant leadership on work performance and work-life balance satisfaction77 |
Relational Identity Theory (2%) | The dual mediation of service climate at the group level and customer orientation at the individual level between servant leadership and service-oriented behaviours121 |
Self-Efficacy Theory (2%) | The impact of servant leadership on employees’ innovative work behaviour (IWB)134 |
Situational Leadership Theory (2%) | The moderation of organisational climate between servant leadership and innovative behaviours139 |
Social Psychological Theory (2%) | The mediation of public service motivation (PSM) between servant leadership and prosocial rule-breaking (PSRB)124 |
The Path-Goal Theory
(2%) | The impact of servant leadership on organisational health98 |
The Person-Organisation Fit Theory (2%) | The moderation impact of servant leadership between change-oriented organisational citizenship behaviour and turnover intention125 |
Z Theory (2%) | The mediation of faculty trust between servant leadership and orgaisational health98 |
Based on antecedents, mediating processes, results, and boundary conditions, this research develops a nomological network for a sample of quantitative servant-leadership studies in the public sector from 2019 till now. The nomological network depicts factors linked to employees (e.g., voice behaviour), teams (e.g., collaboration), leaders (e.g., perceived leadership effectiveness), and organisations. Arrows show the direction of the link between the variables under consideration. Furthermore, (+) and (-) indications indicate whether a positive or negative association was discovered in the public sector-specific quantitative studies analysed (Details illustrated in Figure 2).
According to this review, the factors that induce the formation of servant leadership can be summarised as personal experience (e.g., position, years of experience)140 and organisational conditions (e.g., green human resource management practices, corporate social responsibility, collaborative atmosphere).141–143 However, there has been little research on the leader-related origins of servant leadership in the public sector over the last six years.
In the last six years, research has tended to verify mediating elements at the individual employee level (23 articles), with little exploration of mediating variables at the leader level (2 articles) and the organisational level (2 articles). Five studies have proven that servant leaders in the public sector improve employee performance through Public Service Motivation120,137 or organisational factors. Second, servant leaders in the public sector improve employee performance through job satisfaction132,137 and volunteer retention136; and suppress organisational deviant behaviour78 through Trust in the Leader and improve employee performance129 and organisational citizenship behaviour.70
Six years ago, research tended to verify the positive impact of servant leadership through leader empowerment,144 environmental protection-related green perceived organisational support,74 and organisational identification.145,146 However, research in the last six years has focused on verifying the impact of servant leadership through psychological interactions such as Prosocial Values Motives,73 Emotion Regulation,97 and Psychological Ownership.122
Like prior studies, research lately has underlined that employee-related psychological empowerment and prosocial motivation are moderating elements that affect the effectiveness of servant leadership.129,147 Servant leadership has a greater impact on employee performance when subordinates are more psychologically empowered and motivated.115,148
Unlike previous research, research has proven new moderating variables from the organisational level,116,139,146 Research lately has confirmed the positive moderating effect of Performance-Oriented Climate on servant leadership.116 Servant leadership can reduce the inhibitory moderating effect of Perceived Organizational Politics (POP),70 bolstering the credibility of introducing servant leadership in the public sector. Besides, researchers have innovatively explored the moderating effect of leader-level characteristics, such as the span of supervision negatively moderating servant leadership’s effectiveness.132
According to this review, the deployment of servant leadership in the public sector over the last six years has generally produced benefits at the personnel and organisational levels within the organisational behaviour domain.71,72,75,77,97,112,114,116–118,121,122,130,133–136,138,139
At the organisational level, all studies in this review validated the importance of servant leadership in fostering a prosocial environment.96,98,116,123,129 At the personnel level, only one article found a weak negative link between servant leadership and employee performance, contradicting the favourable relationship observed.120
In contrast to previous work, the last six years have preferred the influence of servant leadership on employees’ extra-role intentions.119 For example, ‘Rule Breaking’ Behaviours112,124 and Proactive Service Behaviour (PSB).127 Furthermore, this review discovered that servant leadership impairs employee deviance,128 cognitive uncertainty131 and turnover Intention.125
This integrative systematic review adds to the leadership literature by combining conceptual and empirical research on servant leadership in the public sector.149 This review demonstrates that empirical research has emerged in a range of public sector contexts across 19 nations, providing some evidence for the cross-cultural validity of servant leadership theory. To reduce the possibility of common method bias, most empirical research in the public sector uses cross-sectional designs and seeks multiple viewpoints from both employees and leaders.150
This article examines the many servant leadership concepts in the public sector.66,86 The use of various conceptual definitions limits study comparisons. Servant leadership is distinguished from other leadership styles by the characteristics of “Other Oriented”, “Community Vision”, “Relationship Moderator”, “Trust with Empowerment”, “Professional Convincible”, “Moral Model”, and “Self-regulated”.151
The social exchange theory remains the dominant theoretical foundation for servant leadership research in the public sector, with few studies considering combining multiple theoretical views.21 The Path-Goal Theory, for example, has been steadily adopted in research to enhance the theoretical meaning of servant leadership.98 Moreover, research that integrates several theoretical approaches is currently rare.97
In terms of measuring servant leadership in the public sector, few studies have adopted a leader’s self-evaluation.96 The rationality of the specific evaluation method is still largely dependent on the researcher’s self-judgment.72 Over the last six years, research has tended to use scales with more brief item designs, such as Liden et al.’s (2015) 7-item design111 and Sendjaya et al.’s (2017) 6-item design.60
Sensitivity analyses, which excluded studies with a high risk of bias, showed that heterogeneity did not alter, suggesting that variability was not primarily caused by low-quality research.84 There was no discernible publication bias, indicating that selective reporting did not affect the heterogeneity. The results are regarded as strong and consistent across various study designs and quality levels, despite some variation.
This review’s findings are generally compatible with previous investigations of servant leadership.2,152 By integrating the nomological network, this review discovers that variables related to individual employees (e.g., voice behaviour) dominate,73 followed by organisational variables (e.g., organisational innovation).116 The antecedents and boundary conditions of servant leadership remain underexplored, creating a knowledge gap in building the groundwork for the nurturing of servant leaders within public sectors.125,129 Furthermore, servant leadership has normally been seen as an exogenous variable predicting many behavioural or attitudinal outcomes, with only a few research uncovering its moderating function.117,125 While the review included studies published within the last six years, rapid advancements in other databases may limit the applicability of some findings to current practice.
Firstly, based on this review’s results, rather than creating a universal definition, existing qualitative research on servant leadership is saturated in uncovering servant leaders’ competence.81,97,125 Besides, determining the cross-cultural adaptability of servant leaders is a difficult task.20,35,57,78 Further research is needed to generate a uniform definition of servant leadership and determine if servant leadership may have a good impact in diverse cultural contexts, as well as the cultural traits and differential employee acceptance that limit servant leadership’s positive function.98
To tackle with the above issues, more qualitative research is encouraged. Firstly, qualitative research is essential for theory building.79,80 Qualitative research delves deeply into the experiences, perceptions, and meanings of servant leadership, providing detailed description that quantitative methods might overlook.81,82,83 Secondly, servant leadership can vary significantly across different organizational and cultural contexts.25,26,44,57 Qualitative methods allow researchers to capture these contextual differences and understand how SL manifests uniquely in each setting.81,83,85 Therefore, by exploring new areas and uncovering underlying mechanisms, qualitative studies can contribute to the development of robust theories of servant leadership.15
Secondly, according to the summary of the nomological network in this review ( Figure 2), future research should investigate the specific causes of servant leadership to better understand how to become servant leaders.114 Future studies can also discover servant leadership’s leader-related outcomes, which are underexplored contemporarily.94,97 While supplementing the nomological network, future research needs to avoid hypothesis testing bias.138,142,147
To close this research gap, more mixed methodologies could be used. On the one hand, utilising both qualitative and quantitative data enables triangulation, which enhances the validity and reliability of the research findings.87,88 It ensures that the results are not biased by the limitations inherent in a single methodological approach.89 On the other hand, mixed methods allow for both the exploration of new concepts and the confirmation of existing theories.90,91 Specifically, qualitative data can uncover new dimensions of servant leadership, while quantitative data can test these dimensions across larger samples.92
Thirdly, as for the measurement of servant leadership, to avoid lengthy scales in data collection, future studies can continuously streamline existing scales or design more refined ones.75,77,107,120,122,126,142 Moreover, according to what has been found in this review, most empirical studies rely on follower assessment.153 Future studies could try to test the efficacy of the leader’s self-evaluation of servant leadership traits.96–99,143 Specifically, customising role-specific and context-specific measurements ensures higher validity and reliability of the assessments.
Regarding the role-specific one, various leadership kinds (e.g., non-government organisation, government, and private sector leaders) and levels (e.g., top executives, middle managers, and frontline supervisors) may demonstrate servant leadership in different ways.100,101 It is important to design measurement tools that precisely capture these differences. Regarding the context-specific one, a leader’s role might influence the behaviours and outcomes of servant leadership.154 Government leaders may prioritize public accountability and openness, whereas leaders of non-governmental organisations may prioritise community service and advocacy.102,103 Customised scales can therefore make it possible to assess the influence of servant leadership on different organisational outcomes more accurately.
As for the research context, future research can detect more servant leadership applications within non-government organisations (NGOs), rather than government and private sectors. Studying servant leadership in NGO leaders can provide insights into how servant leadership principles are applied in these unique settings. NGOs operate in a context distinct from government and private sectors, often with a stronger focus on community service, advocacy, and social justice.104,105 Given NGOs’ mission-driven nature, servant leadership may be particularly relevant and prevalent in this sector.106 Future research can explore how servant leadership contributes to achieving organisational goals, stakeholder satisfaction, and social impact.
As for the research domain, while servant leadership’s impact on organisational behaviour (OB) is well-documented, its influence on ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) performance is less explored.96,98,112,119,125 Understanding how servant leadership contributes to ESG can provide a more holistic view of its functions. ESG performance is increasingly critical for organisational sustainability and reputation.107 Servant leadership aligns well with the principles of sustainability and ethical leadership, which are in line with the ESG’s missions.108 Examining its effect on ESG performance can, on the one hand, demonstrate how servant leaders encourage social responsibility, sustainable practices, and sound governance in their organisations.109,110 On the other side, it can show how servant leaders add value for a wider range of stakeholders, such as workers, communities, and the environment, supporting the organisation’s long-term sustainability and moral standing.108,122
Moreover, as for the theoretical base, future studies can expand on social exchange theory to better explain servant leadership.75 At the same time, diverse theoretical viewpoints can be integrated to deepen the theoretical meaning of servant leadership.97 Finally, this systematic review does have some limitations. This review’s search was confined to journal articles published in six electronic databases over the last six years, which constrained the findings of the servant leadership phenomena in the public sector. Other relevant servant leadership publications available in other internet databases, such as grey literature, dissertations, and other unpublished projects (e.g., internal research projects), can provide more compelling reasons for servant leadership theory in the public sector. Future scholars can broaden the scope of their review to include additional fields.
The importance of public-sector decision-makers influences whether they receive servant leadership training.155 The persistent positive link discovered between servant leadership and valued outcomes provides solid evidence of nurturing servant leadership in the public sector.66,118,129 Therefore, decision-makers could establish servant leadership training programs, which can foster a favourable organisational atmosphere that allows people to go beyond their assigned daily roles.116 Based on this review’s findings, it is recommended that the public sector should focus on the following seven areas of servant leadership training: “Other Oriented”, “Community Vision”, “Relationship Moderator”, “Trust with Empowerment”, “Professional Convincible”, “Moral Model” and “Self-regulated”).
Although servant leadership relates to beneficial outcomes in the public sector, practitioners should be aware that it is difficult to implement successfully.26 Bayram and Zoubi (2020) discovered that servant leadership has a varied impact on staff performance in Jordan’s customs service.120 Demissie et al. (2024) and Khattak & O’Connor (2020) discovered a trade-off between servant leadership and Perceived Organisational Politics.21,70,113 Simultaneously, the scope of leadership will limit servant leaders’ managerial energy and effectiveness.132 Therefore, practitioners need to be constantly alerted to the dynamics of servant leadership implementation.
According to the review, servant leadership research has made significant advances in the public sector setting. Social exchange theory continues to be the main theoretical underpinning for servant leadership research in the public sector, with few studies attempting to integrate diverse theoretical views. Scholars have primarily seen servant leadership as an exogenous characteristic that has a direct or indirect impact on various individual and organisational outcomes, in line with other private sectors. This review’s findings highlight the relevance of embracing servant leadership in the public sector because it provides strong support for creating a prosocial workforce, which contributes to positive performance. As a result, successful servant leadership in the public sector can benefit both employees and the wider community. Future potential research directions and inspirations for practitioners has provides for better understanding and application of the servant leadership.
This Systematic review adheres to the PRISMA guidelines (https://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/prisma/).
https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27902247.
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication).
Citation159: HIZAM-HANAFIAH, MOHD; LI, XIJIN (2024). PRISMA Checklist and Flow Diagram for “Systematic literature review: Servant leadership in public sectors”. figshare. Dataset. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27902247
Underlying data: No data are associated with this article.
Figshare: PRISMA Checklist and Flow Diagram for “Systematic literature review: Servant leadership in public sectors”, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27902247.
This project contains the following underlying data:
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication).
Citation159: HIZAM-HANAFIAH, MOHD; LI, XIJIN (2024). PRISMA Checklist and Flow Diagram for “Systematic literature review: Servant leadership in public sectors”. figshare. Dataset. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.27902247.
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