Virtual game-based learning environments to promote self-regulated learning skills in foreign language learners

Self-regulated learning

The importance of self-regulated learning and its impact on motivation and academic achievement has been a critical matter for educational research since Albert Bandura and Barry Zimmerman in the late eighties (Lu et al., 2017). Being one of the main referents of the concept, Zimmerman (2000) conceptualized self-regulation as “self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals” (p. 14). After many years of reflection, it was established that self-regulated learning was the result of the combination of a metacognitive component, motivational beliefs, and cognitive and social affective elements (Lu et al., 2017). Over time, the concept of self-regulated learning has allowed researchers to understand there is a cause-effect relationship between self-regulated learning and academic achievement, as the higher level of self-regulated learning skills learners have, the higher academic results they might obtain (Fukuda, 2019; Neitzel & Connor, 2018). Hence, self-regulated learning has also been related specifically to language acquisition and how it influences positively certain language skills (Fukuda, 2019; Yüce, 2019). Research has identified that the more students are immersed in traditional learning environments and traditional learning methods, the lower levels of self-regulated learning are going to be developed (Li et al., 2022). Because of that, Cerda et al. (2020) described the relevance of a flexible bilingual learning environment that cultivates student choice and supports content meaning-making, self-regulation, and language learning. As a result, self-regulated learning contributes to language learners’ engagement and enhanced performance in the foreign or second language classroom (Wang, 2021), and under that comprehension, the present research examined the relationship between self-regulated learning and successful language learning strategies as part of elementary school settings.

Foreign language elementary-level students in Colombia

There is broad research on the matter of self-regulated learning development in higher education levels and adult education contexts (Uus et al., 2021). Nonetheless, studies made with children in this area support the idea that they are curious and exploratory learners, who from an early age can selectively explore and choose the information they want to receive (Foushee et al., 2021). For example, Dent and Koenka (2016) established a strong correlation between self-regulated learning and academic achievement from kindergarten to second grade, which then became weaker from third through fifth grade. Research in elementary school settings has described even how students’ age or grade level affected the self-regulated learning orientation strategies students tend to use as they progress to higher grades (Zhu & Mok, 2018). In Colombia, Elementary schools must ensure students acquire basic knowledge for secondary education while developing cognitive, procedural, and affective skills (Moreno et al., 2021). Many students, particularly in public schools, have low competencies in essential skills like reading and writing in Spanish, and yet, the Ministry of National Education aims for students to achieve an A1 level in English by the end of elementary school to build on in high school (Giraldo, 2022; Gómez Sará, 2017). For academic success to happen, children should be able to regulate their emotions and behaviours to adapt to their social and learning environments. This will result in better school readiness and more effective learning processes (Acar et al., 2022). However, when the goal is to pursue a successful learning process that allows students an integral development as learners, other areas of knowledge and skills should be emphasized (Gómez Sará, 2017). That is why promoting self-regulated learning development from early stages in education becomes of such relevance for these new generations. Even so, children will not necessarily become sophisticated, self-regulated learners just by maturing along the developmental stages, so learners require formal training and practice from a young age in self-regulated learning strategies to be successfully autonomous learners (Rameli et al., 2022; Zhu & Mok, 2018). Accordingly, the present research was based on the relevance of knowing how to foster and teach self-regulated learning abilities in language learning as part of the early stages of the educational process, to support the development of higher-order thinking skills and emotional capabilities, according to the developmental stage of elementary students.

Gamification

Gamification refers to the application of game mechanics, aesthetics, and game thinking in non-gaming settings to engage people, motivate action, promote desired behaviors, learning, and solve problems. It may traditionally include the use of interconnected game components (point and leveling systems, leaderboards, badges, bonuses) and game elements (achievements, competition, rewards, and self-expression) while turning the entire learning process into a gaming event (Kucher, 2021; Ofosu-Ampong, 2020; Opris et al., 2021). Gamification as a teaching-learning strategy in educational contexts can be seen as an effective way to educate students, so it can increase the level of individual and group motivation, have an emotional and social impact on students, and increase academic achievement and learners’ ability to learn new skills. Gamified applications for second language learning have proven effective in boosting children’s motivation, engagement, and confidence through enjoyable and non-judgmental environments (Li et al., 2022; Shadiev et al., 2017; Yükseltürk et al., 2018). Dindar et al. (2021) found that gamified cooperation and competition positively impact task effort, learning achievement, and motivation in Chinese university students. Li et al. (2022) observed that younger students (8-10) from Hong Kong benefited from a gamified English learning system, with active users showing improved academic performance and self-regulation skills. Learning sequences should be tailored by following gamification principles, this implies adapting activities and procedures to a gaming thinking system to how a lesson is taught and continuing to develop it based on the feedback from the players, therefore utilizing the elements from game design to improve educational outcomes, activities, and students’ learning experience (Ofosu-Ampong, 2020). In consequence, for the present research gamification was better understood as described in 2011 by Zichermann & Cunningham, like the process of using game-thinking and game mechanics to engage users and solve problems (Ofosu-Ampong, 2020). This allowed a comprehensive view of a digital tool designed to foster the development of self-regulated learning abilities through an engaging, cohesive, and structured learning experience, while it contributed to further research in terms of the applicability and benefits for elementary students.

Digital technologies as learning tools

Digital technologies have been studied as tools that enable personalized and collaborative learning, and that can be used by teachers with different purposes (Bower, 2017). Research also highlights the importance of designing authentic environments for effective learning, which means they should provide activities with real-world relevance, give opportunities for sharing learning experiences regardless of their level of expertise, and allow reflection and assessment within the tasks (Shadiev et al., 2017). Moreno et al. (2021) found that multimedia elements in digital tools (image, sound, animation, interactivity) enhance self-learning and linguistic skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening) in Colombian elementary students, offering innovative pedagogical methods. Hung et al. (2018) reviewed empirical evidence on digital game-based language learning, noting that multiplayer online role-playing games are commonly used on personal computers, primarily for English learning among university students. This raises questions about how such platforms can also support the development of self-regulated learning in diverse learner groups. Virtual Learning Environments (VLEs), for example, have been associated with formal learning and with relationships between teachers, students, and schools, as their features and potentialities become an important element within the student’s learning processes (Alves et al., 2017). VLEs facilitate interaction and interrelation within a continuous communication process, enhance the construction of knowledge and meanings, and promote the formation of habits and attitudes (Alves et al., 2017). Another notion adopted to describe some technological tools applied to education is the Digital game-based learning (DGBL) environment. This according to the researchers has the potential to offer students situated learning that fosters higher levels of engagement and motivation, provides a creative atmosphere to focus on the task, improves real-world skills, and increases students’ self-esteem and interest in the subjects (Hafeez, 2021; Kucher, 2021; Taub et al., 2020). Regularly, students encounter challenges when adopting efficient self-regulatory processes such as cognitive, affective, metacognitive, and motivational while learning, DGBLs encourage pupils in their learning processes due to the properties and possibilities of games. These attributes foster effective self-regulated learning and provide students with opportunities to take the initiative in their learning by analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, and performing higher-order thinking skills (Liao et al., 2019; Taub et al., 2020). In that sense, it is possible to say the technological tool presented as part of this research is a game-based virtual learning environment, which supports itself with gamification strategies to promote the development of self-regulated learning abilities while favoring the development of communicative skills in a foreign language.

Context and participants

Six students from second, third, and fourth Elementary grades between 8 and 10 years old were randomly selected (four girls and two boys) from a private school with over 40 years of experience. Known for its high academic standards and accreditations from global agencies like NEASC and CIS, the school emphasizes forming ethical, responsible global citizens. The sample was small but randomly chosen to ensure credibility and reduce selection bias, aligning with the study’s goal of exploring in depth the shared characteristics of a group exposed to similar educational experiences. There was no specific criterion for the selection of the participants, nor for the type of school, and the decision to limit the sample size was guided by practical constraints, including available resources and the employment relationship of the main researcher with the school, which facilitated convenient access to the participants. Despite these constraints, the study’s design enables a focused exploration of self-regulated language learning experiences among a group of students who, while limited in number, represent a consistent sample in terms of socio-economic background and a similar history of exposure to English as a foreign language since preschool. All participants’ first language was Spanish.

Type of study

The research utilized a qualitative-dominant mixed-methods design supported by quantitative tools. Mixed methods, as described by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), combine qualitative and quantitative approaches to comprehensively address research questions. This study employed a convergent design to merge qualitative insights from interviews and observations with quantitative data from surveys and performance tests, providing a holistic view of SRL development.

Mixed methods enrich understanding by integrating diverse perspectives and validating findings through triangulation. The approach enabled an in-depth exploration of SRL processes and the gamified tool’s impact on students’ learning experiences.

Ethical considerations

For the present research, moral and legal codes were considered regarding the ethical treatment and care of the participants involved with research studies (Saldaña, 2011). The present study was approved by ACT 23-2024 (October 30. 2024), by the Research & Ethics Sub-Committee from the School of Education at Universidad de La Sabana, the document states that “The Research and Ethics Sub-Committee of the Faculty of Education approves the project “Virtual Game-Based Learning Environments to Promote Self-Regulated Learning Skills in Foreign Language Learners”, study conducted by the student Maira Noriega Cortés (main author) and Professor Laura Lucía Carreño (corresponding author), the study demonstrated validity, reliability and attached as evidence of the guidelines followed, the signed consent forms by participants, institutional endorsement letter, and instruments”. Based on the Research and Ethics Sub-Committee guidelines and the globally accepted guidelines for researcher conduct outlined in in UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, for this research it was of special interest to take care of the participants by informing them about the study, sharing the characteristics of their participation, protecting their identities by using pseudonyms, and clarifying that no physical or emotional harm would be caused.

Furthermore, it was explained that the research was being conducted for the benefit of the community, that the information was being guarded and used only for research purposes, and that a responsible action was being performed by being open to all the questions that participants and related members of the community could have. As the main participants were children, only the students whose parents opportunely signed the consent form were included in the research. In addition, the school administration was informed about the project and signed a consent form.

Methodological design of the virtual-learning environment

The methodological design of the virtual-learning environment, was the skeleton behind the project and focused on three aspects:

Figure 1. Forethought phase in the self-regulated learning process of the game.

Figure 2. Performance phase in the self-regulated learning process of the game.

Figure 3. Self-reflection phase in the self-regulated learning process of the game.

Finally, for the design of the prototype a narrative in which students became travelers, visiting different places where it would be necessary to use English as a foreign language was proposed. The final version prototype of the virtual-learning environment used for this research, was design through the video game engine Unity, and represented one level of the whole game, essentially, one mission that takes place in New York City with 3 essential parts:

Data collection instruments and research process

Two primary instruments were designed for data collection: a semi-structured observation format (see Table 2) and questionnaires. These tools were chosen for their ability to generate both qualitative and quantitative data, aligning with the study’s mixed-methods approach. Existing validated instruments, such as the Self-Regulation Assessment Suite (Heger et al., 2022) and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (Ryan, 1982), informed the design process.

All the participants filled in a pre-questionnaire (see Table 1) with 11 questions on a Likert scale that went from Never to Always, to identify the self-regulated skills they already had as part of their everyday learning activities.

Table 1. Student’s pre-questionnaire.¹

PRE-TEST QUESTIONNAIRE
NAME: _____________________________________ DATE: _________________________________
ABOUT MY SELF-REGULATED LEARNING	Never	Rarely	Sometimes	Almost all the time	Always
I recognize that it is important to have learning goals and make sure I fully understand what I need to do before starting an activity.
I recognize that it is important to review my progress while carrying out an activity, to choose the strategies that best help me achieve the goal I set for myself.
I recognize that it is important to evaluate the results of my work at the end of an activity, to identify my strengths and opportunities for improvement.
I set my own learning goals when I am going to start an activity or learn something new.
I reflect on the way I am learning and the results of my activity, to identify my strengths and opportunities for improvement.
I believe I have all the skills I need to be successful in the activity I set out to do.
I can recognize the emotions I am feeling before, during or at the end of an activity.
Depending on the activity and its difficulty, I use different strategies that help me meet the objective and obtain the best possible result.
I can keep my attention on the activity I am doing until I finish it.
I know when to ask or ask an adult for help if I am doing an activity that is difficult for me.
It is easy for me to cooperate with my peers and share the results of my work with them.

1 Original pre-questionnaire is in Spanish, but it was translated for publishing purposes.

After completing the pre-questionnaire, participants took part in the piloting session of the design virtual-learning environment in which a semi-structure observation was implemented to identify what aspects of self-regulated learning the students could recognize and perform while using the tool. It also served the purpose of collecting information about how the students responded to the use of the tool in terms of its usability (learnability, efficiency, errors and satisfaction). The observation protocol contained 22 observable behaviors and was conducted over three sessions of around 45 minutes, each per couple of students selected per grade.

Once the piloting session was over, students filled in a post-questionnaire (see Table 3) with 17 questions to identify the self-regulated learning skills students used while playing and the game experience in terms of the usability of the digital tool.

Table 3. Student’s post-questionnaire.¹

POST-QUESTIONNAIRE
NAME: _______________________________________ DATE: ________________
	Never	Rarely	Sometimes	Almost all the time	Always
ABOUT MY SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
I was able to recognize the learning goal in the game to ensure I fully understood what I needed to do before starting the mission.
I was able to review my progress in the game to choose strategies (which appeared in the mini-games) to achieve the goal and complete the mission.
I was able to evaluate the results of the mission, to identify my strengths and opportunities for improvement.
I was clear about my learning goal when I started developing the mission as part of the game.
At the end of the game I was able to reflect on the way I was learning and the results of my mission, identifying my strengths and opportunities for improvement.
I believe I had all the skills necessary to perform the game activities successfully.
I was able to recognize the emotions I was feeling before, during, and at the end of all the activities of the game.
I was able to choose different mini-games with strategies that helped me accomplish the mission objective and obtain the best possible result.
I was able to maintain my attention throughout the entire mission until I finished it.
I asked or asked for help from the adult when I encountered parts of the game that were difficult for me.
It was easy for me to cooperate with my peers and share the results of my mission with them.
ABOUT USABILITY OF THE TOOL
The game instructions were clear and allowed me to understand what I needed to do to play and move forward.
I was able to quickly adapt to the game mode to complete the entire mission.
I was able to complete all of the mission mini games without the game stopping due to malfunctioning.
I enjoyed the game and everything I was able to do to complete the mission.
I found it to be a fun tool.
I found it to be an interesting tool.

1 Original post-questionnaire is in Spanish, but it was translated for publishing purposes.

Data analysis

Descriptive statistics were used during the first stage in data analysis to understand quantitative data collected through the pre-and post-questionnaires about students’ performance in self-regulated learning skills before and after using the digital tool. The purpose behind following this model was to organize the information and translate it into distribution of frequency, percents, and averages, that provide a summary of relevant numerical information to describe the selected sample, in tables and graphs (Kaushik & Mathur, 2014). Through this analysis it was possible to understand the relationship between students’ behaviors and their learning experience, by visually representing the frequency of use of a particular behavior, as well as the percentage of increase in the general use of self-regulated learning strategies, before and after using the designed digital tool.

During a second stage a thematic analysis framework was chosen to analyze the qualitative data collected with the observation protocol. It was selected as an analysis procedure since it attempts to find repeated meaning across a data set facilitating the interpretation of a particular phenomenon, after following a rigorous system that includes collecting the data, engaging with it, codify, generate code categories, conceptualize themes, and contextualize and represent the findings (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Peel, 2020; Xu & Zammit, 2020). Consequently, data from the observation protocol provided information in terms of recurring ideas, behaviors, and strategies exhibited by the students while using the prototype from beginning to end. The analyzed categories are included in the Results section and a comparison with previous research in the Discussion and Conclusion sections.

Findings

After careful analysis of the data collected through the observation protocol and the two questionnaires, codes were established for mapping, categorizing and contrasting the qualitative and quantitative data, resulting on a core category and two final categories, each with two subcategories (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Category mapping.

Eventually, this mapping attempted to describe the effects in the development of self-regulated learning skills in elementary students, due to the implementation of a virtual game-based learning tool based on gamification strategies, specifically around the successful learning process of English as a foreign language.

Students’ learning experience

This final category includes all the data in relation to participants profile of learning based on their self-perception regarding the use of self-regulated learning strategies, and their profile of performance based on the strategies they implemented while using the gamified tool.

In terms of their self-perception of the use of self-regulated learning strategies daily for learning, they frequently question or ask for support when facing challenges during a task, which are common and basic social strategies they use to understand and indicate involvement inside the classroom. In contrast, their less frequent practices include establishing personal goals of learning before starting an activity and monitoring their own progress to modify the implementation of a particular strategy. In general, they perceived themselves performing between three (27%) and eight (73%) of the 11 behaviors in the pre-questionnaire almost all the time, which describe a profile of learning with some development of self-regulated learning as part of the school environment and learning exposure (see Table 4).

On the other hand, their profile of performance was analyzed by paying attention to students’ behaviors while playing during the piloting session (see Table 5). In correspondence to students’ perceptions, while using the tool students were aware of their emotional states, sought adult support when facing challenges, and identified their strengths and needs based on the difficulty of every game. Each student had a unique profile that influenced their learning and use of strategies, which supported the observable evidence that a minimal development of these self-regulated learning abilities is required if the tool is to be used independently by students. Part of learning technologies effectiveness depends on students’ prior experiences, skills, personalities, and circumstances, inevitably students with attentional or regulatory difficulties often would need significant teacher support during group exercises to follow instructions, stay focused, and identify strategies for success. This highlights the importance of pairing such tools with explicit instruction in self-regulated learning and learning strategies to maximize their benefits inside and outside the classroom.

The post-questionnaire also provided information about students’ profile of performance in which participants perceived themselves confident and with the necessary skills to perform all the proposed tasks, having different options of strategies to achieve the learning objectives of the mission. In contrast, they felt they did not consciously monitor their progress during the game, and some struggled to maintain attention due to the interaction and game dynamics with their partner, which also evidence consistency with the observable behaviors during the piloting, and their answers on the pre-questionnaire.

Students’ use experience

This final category includes all the data in relation to participants recognition and perceptions of tool functioning considering usability aspects such as learnability, efficiency, errors, and satisfaction. Overall, all students understood the tool, completed tasks within the expected time, and reacted positively to its narrative and appearance. Students first learned the game’s functional aspects, like dragging or clicking with the mouse, and although they struggled while discovering technical features, once they grasped the general mechanics they navigated the tool easily. The results from the post questionnaire in relation to the usability of the tool, reflected students’ enjoyment of the tool considering it fun, creative, exciting and interesting, which correlates with their positive verbal and physical responses observed while using the tool. Some students referred occasional difficulties understanding instructions, which also comes as a result from those participants who out of impulsiveness needed more time and peer/teacher support to adjust to the game mode and dynamics.

At the end of the piloting sessions, it was a recurring idea for the participants the ways in which the tool could be a useful resource in English class to learn vocabulary, language use, and even develop a grater comprehension about cultural aspects. Nonetheless, none perceived the tool as a resource to perform and improve their self-regulated learning process, nor identify these strategies as learning assets to improve their ways of learning in other contexts.

Promotion and use of self-regulated learning skills through a gamified tool

The whole process of testing the tool included the three stages of self-regulated learning and allowed students to use a set of eleven language learning strategies. Following the implementation of the tool, students’ self-assessments demonstrated a more lucid comprehension of the pedagogical objectives underlying the assigned task. Additionally, there was a marked increase in their self-efficacy and confidence in their abilities to attain these objectives. The use of diverse learning strategies became more prevalent, facilitating their achievement of desired outcomes. Furthermore, the tool provided an expanded scope for collaborative engagement with peers (see Figure 5), thereby enhancing the overall learning experience.

Figure 5. Comparison of students' pre-questionnaire and post-questionnaire results on the frequency of employment of SRL behaviors before and while using the gamified tool.

Likewise, when stablishing a comparison between the percentages of use from the pre-questionnaire and the post-questionnaire, all the students had an increase of use from between 9% and 36%, in those self-regulated learning behaviors that occurred always as part of their learning process. This implies that employing a gamified tool with a coherent, systematically and attractive designed framework, which facilitates students’ guided exploration of various self-regulated learning strategies and influenced students’ engagement, emotions and behaviors, can significantly enhance their self-regulated learning performance.