Analyzing Nigeria's Journey Towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review From Inception To Present

Current situation

According to comprehensive data and analysis from the World Bank, Nigeria’s progress in reducing poverty rates since embracing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has been notably limited, as evidenced by various studies and reports.^12,24–26 When the SDGs were adopted in 2015, a pivotal year marked by global commitments to reduce poverty and inequality, Nigeria’s national poverty rate was alarmingly high. Approximately 40.1% of the population, nearly half of all Nigerians, were living below the national poverty line (see Figure 1A & B below). Using the 2022 National Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report to evaluate poverty across health, education, living standards, and work and shocks reveals that 63% of Nigeria’s population resides in poverty. This alarming statistic implies that a substantial 6 out of every 10 Nigerians experience multidimensional poverty, highlighting a significant distance from attaining Goal 1 of the SDGs. This statistic is a stark indicator of the widespread economic challenges and disparities faced by a significant portion of the country’s population.^12,24–26 Despite ongoing efforts and initiatives aimed at poverty reduction, the situation remained largely unchanged as of 2019. The poverty rate, steadfast at 40.1%, highlighted a concerning stagnation in economic improvement for the most vulnerable segments of Nigerian society. This stagnation is particularly noteworthy given the period’s global and national emphasis on poverty reduction as a key objective of the SDGs. The persistence of this high poverty rate raises several critical questions about the effectiveness of the strategies employed by Nigeria in addressing this issue. It underscores the complexity of poverty in Nigeria, exacerbated by factors such as regional disparities, economic volatility, and socio-political challenges. These factors contribute to the difficulty in significantly reducing poverty levels, despite the country’s abundant natural resources and potential for economic growth. Moreover, this unchanging poverty statistic reflects broader systemic issues within the country, including income inequality, lack of access to quality education and healthcare, and insufficient social safety nets. These challenges are compounded by external factors such as fluctuating oil prices and global economic trends, which have a direct impact on Nigeria’s economy.^24–26 In light of these findings, it becomes clear that tackling poverty in Nigeria requires a multi-faceted approach. This approach should not only focus on immediate economic relief but also on long-term sustainable development strategies that address the root causes of poverty. Efforts need to be intensified in areas such as education, healthcare, infrastructure development, and economic diversification to create a more inclusive and equitable society.

Figure 1A. People living below $1.90 & 3.20 a day in Nigeria.

Legend: The data presented outlines the percentage of people living below two critical poverty thresholds in Nigeria from 2010 to 2021. The chart indicates the calendar year in which the data was collected. The “Percentage Living Below $1.90/day (%)” refers to the proportion of the Nigerian population subsisting on less than $1.90 per day, a widely recognized international poverty line. Meanwhile, the “Percentage Living Below $3.20/day (%)” represents the percentage of the population living on less than $3.20 per day, which signifies a slightly higher standard of living compared to the $1.90 threshold. This analysis provides valuable insights into the depth of poverty and the economic conditions faced by various segments of the Nigerian population over the specified years.

Figure 1B. Poverty rate trends in Nigeria.

Legend: Poverty Rate Trend in Nigeria (2016-2023). This chart presents the trend in the poverty rate in Nigeria from 2016 to 2023. The values indicate the percentage of the population living below the national poverty line for each corresponding year. The data shows a consistent increase in the poverty rate over the years, highlighting the growing economic challenges faced by the population. The trend illustrates the fluctuations in poverty levels, with notable rises observed in the years 2021, 2022, and 2023, culminating in a poverty rate of 61% in 2023.

The latest Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) report on Nigeria, released by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), reveals that while the country has a higher number of people living in poverty, the intensity of their deprivation has decreased, even though more poverty indicators were measured than in previous reports (Figure 1C). This report, which considers 15 indicators compared to the 10 used in the last two surveys, found that at least 133 million Nigerians, or 63% of the population, are affected by multidimensional poverty. The 2022 MPI report also noted that these 133 million poor people experience an average deprivation level of 40.9%. However, Dataphyte Research’s trend analysis of the global multidimensional poverty situation highlighted a significant reduction in the level of deprivation among poor Nigerians, from 55.9% in 2013 to 54.8% in 2018, and further down to 40.9% in 2022 (Figure 1D). Moreover, the 2022 MPI score of 0.257 (or 25.7%) indicates that these 133 million Nigerians are deprived in more than one dimension, or in at least 26% of weighted indicators. This MPI score is lower than that of 2013 and slightly higher than the 2018 MPI.

Figure 1C. The three (3) dimension and 10 indicators of multidimensional poverty globally.

Figure 1D. Nigeria’s poverty paradox: More poor people, less poverty. The incidence, intensity & index of multidimensional poverty in Nigeria (2013, 2018, 2022).

Legend: The incidence of people experiencing more than 33% deprivation represents a percentage of the total population affected by significant hardships, highlighting the extent of poverty within the community. Additionally, the intensity of deprivation is expressed as a weighted average of both the ten indicators from the earlier period and the fifteen recent indicators of deprivation, providing a comprehensive measure of the depth of poverty faced by individuals. Furthermore, multidimensional poverty is analyzed in terms of both incidence and intensity across different sex categories, allowing for a nuanced understanding of how deprivation affects various demographic groups. This multi-faceted approach underscores the complexity of poverty and the importance of addressing its various dimensions to develop effective intervention strategies.

In contrast, the World Bank’s assessment of Nigeria’s monetary poverty rate indicates that 42.6% of Nigerians now live below the national poverty line of N137,430 per year (or N376.50 per day), a deterioration from the 40.1% reported in 2018. However, Dataphyte Research has noted that while monetary poverty, based on the national poverty line of N377 per day, is expected to rise in Nigeria, the World Bank has observed a steady decline in poverty when measured against the international poverty line of $2.15 per day (equivalent to N953 per day at the official exchange rate of N443.26 per dollar as of November 26, 2022) (Figure 1E). Additionally, the World Bank reported a reduction in income inequality, with the Gini Index decreasing from 35.9 points in 2015 to 35.1 in 2018, and the 2022 World Inequality Report (WIR) maintaining a Gini coefficient of 35.1 for 2022. This reflects a paradox where both multidimensional and monetary poverty in Nigeria show similar trends, suggesting that the government manages a system that simultaneously exacerbates and attempts to mitigate poverty. The increase in multidimensional poverty in 2022 indicates that the government allowed approximately 16.5% of the 19.2% of vulnerable individuals in 2020 to slip into poverty by 2022, raising the poverty incidence from 46.4% in 2020 to 62.9% in 2022. Despite this, the 133 million Nigerians living in poverty (or 62.9% of the population) have managed to avoid deeper poverty, resulting in a lower overall severity or intensity of poverty at 40.9% in 2022 (Figure 1F).

Figure 1E. Extreme monetary poverty is projected to increase but poverty & inequality are decreasing. Extreme poverty – N377 per day; Poverty N 953 per day and inequality – Gini co-efficient (2010-2022).

Legend: This chart presents the poverty headcount percentages for the population living below two different national poverty lines: the national poverty line of 376.50 naira per day and the international poverty line of $2.15 (95.3 naira) per day, as well as the national equivalent of $1 at 443.26 naira as of November 2022. It also includes inequality measures for the specified years (2010, 2012, 2015, 2018, and 2022). The values indicate the percentage of the population categorized as living in poverty based on these income thresholds. Data gaps are indicated by empty cells.

Figure 1F. Global 2020 MPI incidence rate: Nigeria exceeded the average in all world regions except Sub-Saharan Africa.

Legend: Vulnerability and Multidimensional Poverty Indicators by Region. The chart provides a visual representation of various regions and their respective percentages in multidimensional poverty categories. The regions are color-coded as follows: Europe & Central Asia (Blue), East Asia & the Pacific (Yellow), Sub-Saharan Africa (Dark Blue), Latin America & the Caribbean (Orange), Arab States (Gray), Developing Countries (Light Blue), South Asia (Green), and Nigeria 2020 (Brown). The chart illustrates three key categories: the percentage of the population vulnerable to multidimensional poverty (experiencing 20-30% of deprivation), the percentage of the population in multidimensional poverty (experiencing more than 33% of deprivation), and the percentage of the population in severe multidimensional poverty (experiencing more than 50% of deprivations). The data reveals significant disparities between regions, with Sub-Saharan Africa and Nigeria exhibiting particularly high rates of multidimensional and severe poverty, highlighting critical areas for intervention and policy focus.

On the global stage, there exists a poverty paradox as well. The Europe and Central Asia region has the lowest percentage of people vulnerable to multidimensional poverty at 3% of the population. The region also has the least incidence of people in multidimensional poverty at 1% and none of its population experiencing severe multidimensional poverty. However, when considering the three major dimensions of poverty—education, health, and standard of living—the poor people in Europe and Central Asia experience the highest intensity of health deprivation compared to those in other regions, followed by Latin America and the Caribbean. Conversely, the poor people in these two regions have the lowest deprivations in education and standard of living (Figure 1G).

Figure 1G. Global 2020 MPI Intensity of deprivation by sets of two (2) world regions (average score).

Legend: The chart presents data on three key indicators—Education, Health, and Standard of Living across different regions. For the Arab State + East Asia & the Pacific, the Education indicator is at 34.8, Health at 27, and Standard of Living at 38.2. In Europe & Central Asia + Latin America & the Caribbean, the Education indicator is 24.7, Health is 46.5, and Standard of Living is 28.7. For South Asia + Sub-Saharan Africa, the Education indicator stands at 31.6, Health at 24.9, and Standard of Living at 43.5. Finally, in Nigeria, the Education indicator is 28.2, Health is 30.9, and Standard of Living is 40.9. Source: Adapted and modified from World bank,^12,101 Dataphyte.¹⁰²

Thus, it is safe to conclude that, as of 2020, poor people in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa suffer more due to poor standards of living, followed by those in Arab states and the East Asia and Pacific region. Conversely, the world’s regional analysis reveals that poor people in Arab states and the East Asia and Pacific region suffer more due to poor educational standards, followed by South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, to effectively tackle poverty in these regions, governments need to identify and address the specific areas where poor people suffer the most. This insight is particularly instructive for countries like Nigeria. To tackle its multidimensional poverty, it is crucial to drill down beyond the general MPI scores to the specific indicators showing where poor people suffer the most. Looking at the three broad MPI dimensions of poverty i.e. education (28.2% of the population deprived), health (30.9% of the population deprived), and standard of living (40.9% of the population deprived)—it appears that as of 2020, poor people in Nigeria were most deprived in terms of their standard of living, which includes areas such as the source of cooking oil, sanitation facilities, access to safe drinking water, electricity, decent housing, and basic financial assets. However, a deeper analysis of the 10 poverty indicators in 2020 reveals that the poor in Nigeria suffer most from poor nutrition, which pertains to the health dimension of their poverty.

Efforts by the Nigerian government

In a proactive response to the dire poverty situation, the Nigerian government has launched several initiatives under the umbrella of poverty alleviation programs, designed to ameliorate the living conditions of its citizens. A key component of these efforts is the National Social Investment Program (NSIP), which has been formulated with multiple facets, each targeting different aspects of poverty and striving for greater social inclusion.^12,24–26 One critical element of the NSIP is the Conditional Cash Transfer program. This initiative directly targets vulnerable households, providing them with cash transfers intended to ease their immediate financial burdens. The overarching objective of this program is twofold: firstly, to offer a lifeline to those in dire economic straits, and secondly, to establish a foundation for long-term social protection for society’s most at-risk individuals.¹² Another significant arm of the NSIP is the National Home-Grown School Feeding program. This innovative program is not just about combating poverty; it also addresses malnutrition by offering free meals to primary school children. The dual focus of this initiative is strategic – while alleviating immediate hunger, it simultaneously seeks to enhance educational outcomes for children from low-income families. By doing so, the program aims to create a virtuous cycle where improved nutrition leads to better educational performance, which in turn can be a key factor in breaking the cycle of poverty.¹²

However, despite the well-intended design and objectives of these programs, their implementation has faced significant challenges. Reports and critiques have pointed out that the National Home-Grown School Feeding program, in particular, has not lived up to its expectations. Far from achieving its goals of poverty alleviation and nutritional support, the program has been mired in issues of inefficiency and mismanagement. There have been indications that the resources allocated for this noble cause have been diverted, with the implementers of the program allegedly redirecting the funds and resources for personal gain, rather than for the benefit of the intended recipients. This misdirection of resources and efforts highlights a crucial gap in the execution of these well-meaning programs. It underscores the need for stringent oversight, transparency, and accountability in the administration of government-led initiatives. The effectiveness of poverty alleviation programs is not just in their design but in their delivery. Ensuring that these programs reach their intended beneficiaries without diversion or dilution is essential for making a tangible impact on poverty and social inequality in Nigeria. In summary, while the Nigerian government has recognized the importance of addressing poverty through initiatives like the NSIP, the challenges in implementation, particularly in ensuring effective delivery and preventing misappropriation of funds, remain significant barriers. Addressing these issues is crucial for the success of these programs and for making meaningful strides towards poverty reduction and social inclusion in Nigeria.

Challenges and constraints

Despite the Nigerian government’s concerted efforts towards poverty reduction, the journey towards achieving Goal 1 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) - the eradication of poverty - is fraught with substantial challenges and constraints. These impediments significantly hinder the country’s progress and necessitate a closer examination. A primary challenge lies in Nigeria’s demographic dynamics. The country is experiencing one of the highest population growth rates globally. This rapid increase in population size is outstripping the pace of poverty reduction efforts. Consequently, even if poverty rates were to stabilize, the absolute number of individuals living in poverty is projected to rise continuously. This demographic pressure underscores the urgency for more effective poverty alleviation strategies that can keep pace with, or ideally surpass, population growth rates.^12,24–26 Moreover, the issue of poverty in Nigeria is exacerbated by the stark inequality in the distribution of resources and opportunities. This disparity is particularly pronounced when comparing urban and rural areas. In rural regions, poverty is more acute due to limited access to essential services such as quality education, healthcare, and viable employment opportunities. The rural population, therefore, remains disproportionately affected by poverty, trapped in a cycle where lack of resources perpetuates further deprivation.^12,24–26

Additionally, the efficiency and impact of poverty alleviation programs are often compromised by a host of operational challenges. Limited funding is a significant hurdle, constraining the scale and reach of these initiatives. Inefficient implementation mechanisms further dilute their effectiveness, leading to suboptimal outcomes. Moreover, pervasive issues of corruption within the system can divert resources meant for poverty alleviation, severely undermining the objectives of these programs. These systemic flaws in program delivery and resource management are critical roadblocks in the path towards achieving Goal 1.^12,24–26 The persistence of a high national poverty rate, despite various governmental initiatives, paints a sobering picture of the current state of affairs. The challenges of rapid population growth, unequal resource distribution, and implementation inefficiencies present complex, interconnected hurdles. To make substantial progress in reducing poverty and achieving sustainable development, Nigeria must address these challenges holistically. This requires not only the refinement of existing strategies but also the innovation of new approaches that are scalable, sustainable, and resilient to the diverse socio-economic landscape of the country. In essence, the task ahead for Nigeria is not only to intensify its efforts in poverty reduction but also to reimagine and restructure these efforts to be more inclusive, efficient, and impactful. By doing so, Nigeria can hope to make significant strides towards eradicating poverty and moving closer to realizing the ambitious vision set forth by the SDGs.

Current situation

Nigeria’s journey towards the critical goal of zero hunger, a cornerstone of the Sustainable Development Goals, is marked by significant obstacles. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports that as of 2018, the prevalence of undernourishment in Nigeria stood at 20.8%, a figure that, while representing a marginal improvement from the 21.1% recorded in 2013, underscores the persistent issue of food insecurity in the nation.²⁷ This modest reduction in undernourishment levels, though indicative of some progress, highlights the ongoing struggle many Nigerians face in accessing adequate nutrition. The challenge of achieving zero hunger in Nigeria is multifaceted. The country’s large and rapidly growing population intensifies the demand for food, placing immense pressure on the existing food supply systems. This situation is further complicated by a range of structural and environmental factors. Inadequate agricultural practices, often characterized by low productivity and sustainability issues, impede the capacity to meet the escalating food demands. Moreover, the effects of climate change including erratic rainfall patterns, extreme weather events, and environmental degradation exacerbate the vulnerability of agricultural production, a key source of food supply in the country.^27,28,29,30

Despite these challenges, the slight decrease in undernourishment rates does signal some positive developments. It suggests that interventions and policies aimed at improving food security may be having an impact, albeit limited. However, the persistence of high undernourishment rates indicates that these efforts need to be significantly amplified and refined. Addressing food insecurity in Nigeria requires a comprehensive approach that goes beyond merely increasing food production. It necessitates the implementation of strategies that ensure the equitable distribution of food, improve the resilience of agricultural systems to environmental changes, and enhance access to nutritious food for all, particularly for the most vulnerable segments of the population.^31–41 Efforts must also focus on improving rural infrastructure, enhancing agricultural technology, and providing support to farmers to boost productivity and sustainability. In conclusion, while Nigeria has made some strides in reducing undernourishment, the journey towards achieving zero hunger is still fraught with challenges. A concerted effort from the government, in collaboration with international organizations, local communities, and the private sector, is essential to overcome these obstacles. By adopting a holistic and multi-pronged approach, Nigeria can move closer to ensuring that all its citizens have reliable access to sufficient and nutritious food, ultimately achieving the goal of zero hunger.

Factors contributing to food insecurity

Food insecurity in Nigeria, a critical challenge impeding the country’s progress towards zero hunger, can be attributed to a constellation of interrelated factors. These factors not only impinge on the availability and accessibility of food but also on the resilience of the population in the face of fluctuating food supplies.

Inadequate agricultural practices

At the forefront of these issues are suboptimal agricultural practices. Nigerian farmers often grapple with limited access to modern farming techniques, quality seeds, fertilizers, and efficient irrigation systems, all of which are pivotal for enhancing agricultural productivity. This gap in resources and technology significantly limits the country’s agricultural output, making it challenging to produce sufficient food to meet the growing needs of its population. Additionally, the lack of adequate infrastructure, such as effective storage facilities and reliable transportation networks, exacerbates this problem. These deficiencies lead to considerable post-harvest losses, further reducing the overall availability of food and contributing to persistent food insecurity.^27–41

Impact of climate change

Compounding these agricultural challenges is the looming threat of climate change, which presents a profound risk to food security in Nigeria. Erratic rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and rising temperatures directly impact crop production and livestock rearing. These climatic changes are particularly detrimental to smallholder farmers, who constitute a significant portion of Nigeria’s agricultural sector. Predominantly dependent on rain-fed agriculture and with limited capacity to adapt, these farmers find themselves exceedingly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. This vulnerability not only undermines their livelihoods but also jeopardizes the nation’s food supply.²⁷

Rapid population growth

Another critical factor exacerbating Nigeria’s food insecurity is the country’s rapid population growth. With one of the highest population growth rates globally, Nigeria faces increasing pressure on its agricultural systems. As the population expands, so does the demand for food, intensifying the challenges of feeding a burgeoning populace. This demographic trend amplifies the strain on already constrained food resources, making the attainment of zero hunger an even more daunting task.²⁷

Addressing the challenges

To effectively combat these issues, a multi-faceted approach is needed. Enhancing agricultural practices through the introduction of modern farming technologies, improved seed varieties, and efficient irrigation systems can significantly increase productivity. Developing robust infrastructure for storage and transportation is also crucial to minimize post-harvest losses and ensure the steady supply of food. In addition, adopting climate-smart agricultural practices is essential to build resilience against the impacts of climate change, particularly for smallholder farmers. Furthermore, addressing the rapid population growth through effective policy interventions can help to balance the demand and supply dynamics of food in Nigeria. This involves not only promoting sustainable agricultural practices but also ensuring equitable access to food, particularly for the most vulnerable segments of the population. In summary, tackling food insecurity in Nigeria requires a comprehensive strategy that addresses the root causes of the problem. By focusing on improving agricultural productivity, adapting to climate change, and managing population growth, Nigeria can make significant strides towards achieving zero hunger, ensuring that all its citizens have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food.

Initiatives to address food insecurity

In response to the pressing challenge of food insecurity, the Nigerian government has launched a series of targeted initiatives aimed at enhancing agricultural productivity and ensuring widespread access to nutritious food for its population.

Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA)

A cornerstone of these efforts is the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA), an ambitious program designed to modernize and revitalize Nigeria’s agricultural sector. The ATA’s primary objective is to significantly boost food production, a move seen as crucial in mitigating food scarcity. To achieve this, the government has channeled substantial investments into several key areas. Firstly, research and development have been prioritized, recognizing the vital role of innovative agricultural techniques and technologies in increasing crop yields and improving food quality. By fostering a robust R&D ecosystem, the ATA seeks to introduce more efficient farming practices and resilient crop varieties, tailored to Nigeria’s diverse climatic zones. Secondly, enhancing infrastructure related to agriculture is another focal point. This encompasses the development of better storage facilities to reduce post-harvest losses, improvement of transportation networks for efficient food distribution, and the establishment of irrigation systems to mitigate the impacts of erratic rainfall and droughts. These infrastructure upgrades are crucial for ensuring a consistent and stable food supply. Finally, capacity building is a critical component of the ATA. This involves providing farmers with the necessary training and resources to adopt modern farming techniques, thereby increasing their productivity and resilience. The government’s efforts here include initiatives to improve farmers’ knowledge of sustainable farming practices, access to quality seeds and fertilizers, and use of efficient irrigation and soil management techniques.²⁷

National Food Security Program (NFSP)

In parallel, the National Food Security Program (NFSP) focuses specifically on enhancing food availability and accessibility, particularly for vulnerable segments of the population. The NFSP encompasses a range of interventions designed to directly support farmers and strengthen the overall food system. This includes the provision of subsidized fertilizers and high-yield seed varieties to farmers, aiming to enhance crop productivity and thereby increase food availability. The program also promotes sustainable agricultural practices such as agroforestry and efficient land management, which are vital for preserving the environment and ensuring long-term agricultural productivity. Additionally, the NFSP places a strong emphasis on empowering small-scale farmers, who are pivotal in the country’s food supply chain. This empowerment is facilitated through various means, such as providing training in modern farming techniques, access to credit facilities, and support in forming cooperatives. Such measures aim to bolster the capacity of these farmers, enabling them to contribute more effectively to food security in Nigeria.²⁷

International collaborations and assistance

Furthermore, recognizing the importance of collaboration in addressing such a complex issue, the Nigerian government has sought partnerships with international organizations and development partners. A notable example is the collaboration with the United Nations World Food Programme (WFP). The WFP has played an instrumental role in providing emergency food assistance in areas affected by conflict and displacement, which are particularly susceptible to food insecurity. Additionally, WFP’s involvement extends to implementing nutrition programs aimed at the most vulnerable populations, thereby contributing to the broader goal of achieving food security in Nigeria,²⁷ In summary, through initiatives like the ATA and NFSP, complemented by international partnerships, Nigeria is making concerted efforts to combat food insecurity. These initiatives represent a multifaceted approach, addressing various aspects of the food system from production to distribution, and from capacity building to emergency assistance. The success of these efforts is crucial for Nigeria’s journey towards ensuring food security for all its citizens, in alignment with the Sustainable Development Goals.

Challenges and constraints

While Nigeria has initiated a number of strategies to combat hunger, the nation continues to face formidable challenges in achieving Goal 2 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the goal of achieving zero hunger. These challenges, stemming from a variety of factors, significantly impede the progress towards ensuring food security for all its citizens.

Inadequate funding and limited access to credit

A major impediment is the inadequacy of funding allocated for agricultural development. This financial constraint severely limits the government’s capacity to implement effective agricultural programs and to invest in advanced technologies that could substantially enhance productivity. In addition to government funding issues, a significant obstacle for smallholder farmers, who are vital to the nation’s food production, is the lack of access to credit and financial services. This lack of financial support hinders these farmers’ abilities to invest in essential inputs like quality seeds and fertilizers, and to adopt modern agricultural techniques, all of which are necessary to improve their yields and contribute to the overall food security.^27,28–41

Security challenges and agricultural disruptions

Furthermore, security concerns, especially in regions affected by conflict, pose a severe challenge to achieving food security. In these areas, agricultural activities are frequently hampered, disrupting both food production and distribution systems. The resultant instability not only exacerbates food insecurity but also impedes the effective implementation of food security initiatives. Farmers in these conflict-affected regions face enormous risks, and this insecurity can lead to abandoned farms, reduced agricultural output, and consequently, increased food scarcity.^27–30

Broader challenges impacting food security

The quest to achieve zero hunger in Nigeria is further complicated by a confluence of factors. Poor agricultural practices continue to plague the sector, limiting crop yields and the quality of produce. The impacts of climate change including erratic weather patterns and extreme climatic events add another layer of difficulty, affecting crop and livestock production and posing a threat to food security. Additionally, Nigeria’s high population growth rate puts extra pressure on the already strained food supply, exacerbating the challenges of ensuring adequate food for all.

Ongoing efforts and future needs

In response to these challenges, initiatives such as the Agricultural Transformation Agenda and the National Food Security Program have been put in place. These programs aim to address key issues in agriculture and food security, but they themselves face hurdles, including the aforementioned inadequate funding and security concerns. To effectively move towards zero hunger, Nigeria requires a comprehensive approach that encompasses sustainable agricultural development, adaptation to climate change, and enhanced support for smallholder farmers.

Comprehensive analysis

To provide a clearer picture of the situation, Table 3 offers a detailed summary of the specific targets under Goal 2 and their corresponding SDGs indicators. It serves as a critical tool for understanding the nuances of the challenges faced, the progress made so far, and the gaps that need to be addressed in Nigeria’s journey towards achieving zero hunger. In conclusion, while some progress has been made, the road to achieving zero hunger in Nigeria is fraught with challenges. Addressing these effectively requires a strategic, well-funded, and coordinated approach that involves all stakeholders, including the government, the agricultural sector, international partners, and the communities themselves. By tackling these challenges head-on and leveraging a multi-dimensional strategy, Nigeria can work towards fulfilling the ambitious goal of ensuring food security for all its citizens.

Maternal and child health

One of the key health challenges in Nigeria is the high maternal and child mortality rates. Maternal mortality refers to the death of a woman during pregnancy, childbirth, or within 42 days of delivery, while child mortality refers to the death of a child under the age of five. These indicators are often seen as measures of the overall health and well-being of a population. To address these challenges, the Nigerian government has implemented various programs and initiatives aimed at improving maternal and child health. For example, the National Primary Health Care Development Agency (NPHCDA) has launched the Integrated Maternal, Newborn, and Child Health Strategy (IMNCH) to provide comprehensive and integrated healthcare services for women and children.⁵³ This strategy focuses on promoting antenatal care, skilled attendance at birth, essential new-born care, immunization, and access to family planning services.^46,47,54

Additionally, the Nigerian government has also made efforts to improve access to quality healthcare services. The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) was established to provide financial risk protection and access to healthcare for all Nigerians. However, the implementation and coverage of the NHIS still face significant challenges, hindering the achievement of universal health coverage in the country. Goal 3 of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aims to ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. Nigeria, like many other developing countries, faces significant challenges in achieving this goal. While the country has made some progress in improving health outcomes, it still lags behind in achieving universal health coverage.¹¹ According to the World Health Organization (WHO), Nigeria’s maternal mortality ratio decreased from 814 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2015 to 525 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2019.⁴⁴ This is a positive development, but the country still has one of the highest maternal mortality rates in the world. One of the major challenges facing Nigeria’s healthcare system is limited access to quality healthcare services. Many people in the country, particularly those living in rural areas, do not have access to basic healthcare services. This is due to a shortage of healthcare workers, inadequate health infrastructure, and a lack of funding for healthcare.⁴⁴ In addition, high infant mortality rates remain a significant challenge in Nigeria. According to UNICEF, the infant mortality rate in Nigeria was 67 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2019.⁵⁵ This is much higher than the global average of 28 deaths per 1,000 live births.

To address these challenges, the Nigerian government has developed various policies and initiatives aimed at improving health outcomes in the country. For example, the National Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (2017-2020) includes provisions for improving healthcare infrastructure, increasing the number of healthcare workers, and expanding access to healthcare services (Federal Government of Nigeria, 2017).¹¹ The government has also launched various health campaigns aimed at improving maternal and child health, such as the National Strategic Health Development Plan II (2018-2022) and the Saving One Million Lives Initiative.¹¹ While Nigeria has made some progress in improving health outcomes, there is still a long way to go in achieving universal health coverage and ensuring good health and well-being for all. Limited access to quality healthcare services, high infant mortality rates, and inadequate health infrastructure remain significant challenges. However, the government’s policies and initiatives aimed at improving healthcare in the country are a step in the right direction.

Communicable diseases

Nigeria grapples with substantial obstacles in mitigating the prevalence and transmission of infectious diseases, especially HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis which exert a massive burden on population health.^56,57 As per UNAIDS estimates, Nigeria bears the second highest HIV/AIDS burden globally with around 1.9 million people living with the infection in 2019.⁵⁷ Additionally, the country registers exceptionally high malaria caseloads of approximately 97 million cases annually.⁵⁸ To counter the severity of these communicable diseases, the government has instituted disease-specific interventions albeit with varying degrees of success. For HIV/AIDS, the National Agency for the Control of AIDS (NACA) developed a robust National Strategic Framework that delineates priority areas like prevention, testing, treatment, care and support programs.⁵⁹ Similarly, the National Malaria Elimination Program (NMEP) actively works to expand insecticide-treated net coverage, bolster diagnostic and treatment accessibility and intensify surveillance mechanisms.^60–62

However, glaring gaps continue to constrain Nigeria’s ability to adequately respond to and effectively control these major public health challenges. Especially in rural and remote areas, the skeletal healthcare system grapples with scarce health infrastructure, human resources, medical supplies and health financing to cater to care needs. Entrenched socioeconomic barriers further widen health disparities while cultural beliefs and stigma deter health-seeking behaviors. Undeniably, solving Nigerians longstanding vulnerability to infectious diseases will necessitate sizable investments in strengthening healthcare capacity and community-based services. Beyond programmatic interventions, establishing resilient health systems grounded in accessible primary care delivery, surveillance networks and patient-centered care will be instrumental to curbing communicable disease mortality and morbidity. Sustained political will, community participation and integrated partnerships across public and private stakeholders can help advance Nigeria’s aspirations for universal health coverage and improved population health.

Non-communicable diseases

In recent decades, Nigeria has witnessed surging cases of non-communicable or lifestyle-related diseases such as cardiovascular conditions, diabetes, chronic respiratory illnesses and cancers. As per World Health Organization estimates, non-communicable diseases accounted for 29% of total registered deaths in Nigeria in 2016, establishing them as leading causes of mortality and morbidity.⁶¹ In response to this epidemiological shift and confronting public health threat, the Nigerian government instituted a National Strategic Plan focused singularly on mitigating risk factors, enhancing early diagnosis and optimizing evidence-based management of non-communicable diseases. The plan delineates interventions like raising community awareness of modifiable risk factors, implementing fiscal policies to curb tobacco and alcohol consumption, promoting nutrition education and physical activity, and re-orienting health systems towards continuity of care for those requiring lifelong treatment.^63–65

However, deeply-entrenched barriers continue to impede successful prevention and control of non-communicable diseases. Key amongst them are poor health literacy rates regarding chronic disease risk factors, severe shortages of healthcare infrastructure and workforce outside urban concentrations, and inability of rural populations to access screening or sustain treatment adherence. To genuinely curb preventable mortality from non-communicable diseases, Nigeria needs to leverage multi-sector collaboration between health, education, trade, fiscal and environment agencies. Increasing both governmental and private investment in human resources, medical technologies and community-based primary care is equally vital. Integrating non-communicable disease surveillance, education and management into existing primary healthcare systems can help extend continuity of care to Nigeria’s dispersed rural communities.

Mental health

Mental health is a critical, yet over neglected component of holistic population wellbeing in Nigeria. As per World Health Organization estimates, Nigeria’s mental health disorder prevalence was around 21.7% in 2019, signaling that over a fifth of the country’s population suffered from some form of mental illness.⁵⁸ However, a grave lack of infrastructure, human resources and awareness continues to undermine access to essential mental healthcare. At present, Nigeria has very few specialized facilities and an extreme shortage of qualified mental health professionals to cater to the diverse needs of patients. To start addressing this service delivery gap, the Nigerian government has prioritized building mental health capacity within its primary healthcare system. The guiding framework for this effort is the Mental Health Policy and Strategic Plan for Nigeria (2013-2020) which outlined key focus areas like awareness promotion, workforce development, facility expansion and integrating screening and treatment at community levels.⁶⁶ Additionally, civil society and advocacy campaigns are actively working to increase mental health literacy and counter the pervasive stigma that silences those afflicted. But despite policy provisions and fledgling partnerships, mental healthcare remains a largely neglected domain in practice.

Going forward, Nigerian needs to ramp up investments towards actualizing the provisions of its policy frameworks. More financing is imperative for training specialized mental health workers, building dedicated wards and treatment centers, expanding community-based rehabilitation support and meeting the needs of vulnerable groups. Simultaneously, cultural attitudes and beliefs that inhibit care-seeking or perpetuate human rights violations require sensitivity training across healthcare and law enforcement sectors. In summary, without resolute efforts to increase investments, address systemic gaps and sensitize communities, Nigeria cannot holistically meet the mental health needs or ensure the rights of citizens impacted by mental health disorders. Prioritizing mental health is indispensable for improving quality of life and achieving sustainable good health and wellbeing targets.

Current situation

Nigeria contends with extensive exclusion in basic education access and completion resulting in a sizeable population of out-of-school children across all geopolitical zones. However, girls and children from poor rural communities remain particularly deprived with only 61.7% net primary enrollment reported as of 2018. This rate signals a 11.1 percentage point decline within a decade, underscoring backsliding on commitments to achieve universal access.^26,67 The endemic barriers fueling Nigeria’s out-of-school crisis are multilayered and frequently intersectional in impact. Key impediments include the prohibitive distances between remote settlements and nearest public schools, rampant poverty throttling families’ ability invest in education, sociocultural practices like early marriage that disproportionately deny girls’ schooling opportunities and a debilitating lack of resources flowing into the public education system nationwide.⁶⁷

Combined, these obstacles have substantially thwarted Nigeria’s aspirations to guarantee inclusive and equitable access to 12 years of free basic education as enshrined by national laws. With nearly 4 out 10 primary-aged children still unenrolled, meeting targets aligned with the Sustainable Development Goal on quality education remains an immense challenge. Addressing the crisis requires quad-sectoral interventions from the government, civil society, communities and external donors to tackle both demand-side and supply-side drivers. Improving enrollment and retention of girls and rural populations would involve incentives like conditional cash transfers, providing free meals and transportation, constructing community schools and conducting sensitization drives on gender roles and early marriage. Simultaneously, education infrastructure, technologies, recruited qualified teachers and learning materials require huge investments to bridge system-wide gaps hampering equitable access countrywide.

Challenges and constraints

Insufficient funding is a major contributor to the low quality of education in Nigeria. The education sector in the country is characterized by limited financial resources, resulting in inadequate infrastructure, poorly equipped classrooms, and a lack of teaching materials. According to UNESCO,⁶⁷ Nigeria’s education expenditure as a percentage of its national budget is only 6%, which falls below the recommended benchmark of 15% set by the UNESCO’s Education for All (EFA) initiative. This lack of funding severely hampers efforts to improve the quality of education and provide equal opportunities for all children, regardless of their socio-economic background. In addition to inadequate funding, the shortage of qualified teachers is another significant obstacle to achieving quality education in Nigeria. The country is facing a shortage of trained and experienced teachers, especially in rural areas.⁶⁷ This shortage affects the teaching and learning process, as there are not enough teachers to provide quality instruction to all students. Furthermore, the quality of teacher training programs and professional development opportunities need improvement to ensure that teachers are equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to deliver quality education.

Furthermore, inadequate infrastructure such as classrooms, libraries, and laboratories also hinder the delivery of quality education in Nigeria. Many schools lack essential facilities, making it difficult for students to engage in hands-on learning experiences and access resources that facilitate effective learning.^26,67 Dilapidated classrooms and a lack of basic amenities such as clean water and sanitation facilities further deter students from attending school regularly and limit their overall educational experience.^70–74

Progress towards gender equality in Nigeria

Nigeria has made some progress towards achieving gender equality in recent years. For instance, the country has enacted laws and policies aimed at promoting gender equality. The National Gender Policy, which was launched in 2006, is one such policy. The policy seeks to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment in all sectors of the economy. It also aims to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women and girls.⁷⁸ In addition, Nigeria has ratified several international conventions and treaties that promote gender equality. These include the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. These international instruments provide a framework for promoting gender equality and empowering women. Furthermore, Nigeria has made some progress in increasing female representation in political and economic decision-making roles. For instance, in 2019, women held 6.7% of parliamentary seats, up from 5.6% in 2015.¹² The country has also made some progress in increasing the number of women in leadership positions in the private sector. For example, in 2019, women held 22.4% of senior management positions in Nigerian companies, up from 19.7% in 2016.¹²

Challenges to gender equality in Nigeria

Despite the progress made towards achieving gender equality in Nigeria, significant challenges still exist. One of the major challenges is gender-based violence. Women and girls in Nigeria are at risk of various forms of violence, including domestic violence, sexual violence, and harmful cultural practices such as female genital mutilation and child marriage. According to the National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS) conducted in 2018, 30% of women aged 15-49 have experienced physical violence, and 10% have experienced sexual violence.⁷⁹ Another challenge is the low level of female participation in the labor force. Although the number of women in the labor force has increased in recent years, women still account for only 22.4% of the labor force participation rate.^3,4,12,80,81 This is partly due to cultural and social norms that limit women’s access to education and employment opportunities.⁸² Furthermore, women’s representation in political and economic decision-making roles remains low. Despite the increase in the number of women in parliament, women still hold only 6.7% of parliamentary seats.¹² This is far below the global average of 25%.⁸³ Similarly, women’s representation in senior management positions in the private sector is still low, with women holding only 22.4% of such positions.¹²

Progress towards clean water and sanitation in Nigeria

In recognition of the acute challenges hampering clean water availability and sanitation access for millions of citizens, the Nigerian government instituted dedicated policies and programs to expand coverage and improve infrastructure nationwide since the turn of the century.⁴⁰ The foremost development was the ratification of the National Water Supply and Sanitation Policy in 2000 which ambitiously outlined plans to extend piped water schemes and modern toilet facilities to underserved groups, especially across neglected rural areas. By providing binding targets, guidelines and accountabilities, this policy signaled Nigeria’s commitment to water, sanitation and hygiene sector reforms.⁹⁸ Additionally, to catalyze action, the launch of national vision plans like the Nigeria Vision 20:2020 in 2009 also embedded ambitious targets around raising basic water and sanitation access to 75% and 90% respectively before the end of this decade.^24–26,55

Bolstered by these enabling frameworks, Nigeria has managed to incrementally expand clean water availability and sanitation solutions over the past years though immense gaps remain, particularly across rural villages. As of 2017 statistics, 67% of Nigerians could access basic drinking water sources, a 6% point rise over 2015 data. In the same period, basic sanitation coverage escalated from 29% to 40%, indicating gradual improvements in modern toilet access yet majority still rely on unsafe disposal means.^55,70–74 However, in 2023, the population proportion in rural settings in Nigeria using safely managed drinking water services varied based on the service level provided (see Figure 3A, B, & C below). While these are important steps forward, intensified efforts are indispensable if Nigeria aims to achieve universal coverage targets under Sustainable Development Goal 6 by 2030. More than ever, the country needs to translate national policies into augmented investments, localized infrastructure expansion, transparent governance, integrated planning and sustainability mechanisms across the WASH sector.

Challenges to clean water and sanitation in Nigeria

While Nigeria has progressed in expanding clean water and sanitation coverage over the past decades, systemic and cross-cutting challenges continue to obstruct efforts to achieve sustainable universal access, especially across underserved rural areas. Foremost among prevailing challenges is the country’s struggle with developing comprehensive WASH infrastructure to connect all households with piped water supplies and modern toilet facilities.^95–97 This stems from chronically low investments into building climate-resilient water systems and decentralized sanitation solutions. Consequently, Nigeria’s existing infrastructure remains highly concentrated around wealthy urban areas while remote communities suffer without basic access. Simultaneously poor adoption of safe hygiene practices like handwashing with soap exacerbates public health risks associated with unsafe water and open defecation. As of 2018 statistics, only 13% of Nigerians wash hands with soap post defecation thereby heightening prospects of diarrheal diseases spreading across populations lacking access to safe sanitation means.^{24,25,79,95–97}

Additionally, Nigeria’s vulnerability to climate change-fueled extreme weather events threatens sustainability of water availability for consumption, agriculture and sanitation needs of economically disadvantaged groups. Intensifying droughts and floods damage water catchment and storage infrastructures. This particularly endangers remote villages dependent on season rainfall and natural sources like lakes, rivers and streams.^20,28,99,100 Undeniably, Nigeria cannot genuinely combat preventable WASH-related diseases, achieve human capital development targets or manage its water resources sustainably without surmounting these systemic deficits impeding universal clean water availability and sanitation access. It necessitates redoubled efforts across all governance levels towards infrastructure upgrades, community mobilization, climate adaptation, transparency enhancement and integrated planning between health, environment and economic policy domains.¹⁰⁰

Way forward

Advancing quality education in Nigeria

To overcome the barriers to quality education in Nigeria, prioritizing and investing in the education sector is essential. This involves increasing education funding and ensuring effective management and utilization of these resources. Such measures are critical for enhancing school infrastructure, providing necessary teaching materials, and overall improvement in education quality. Additionally, attracting and retaining qualified teachers is paramount. This can be achieved by offering competitive salaries, opportunities for professional development, and incentives for teaching in under-served rural areas. Moreover, strengthening teacher training programs to align with contemporary educational needs and standards will further enhance the quality of education. Furthermore, the development of school infrastructure, including the construction and renovation of classrooms, libraries, and laboratories, is crucial in creating conducive environments for effective teaching and learning. Addressing these issues, including the high out-of-school rate and teacher shortages, will propel Nigeria towards achieving Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals, thereby providing quality education to its populace.

Promoting gender equality

Transitioning to the realm of gender equality, Nigeria requires concerted efforts from the government, civil society organizations, and various stakeholders to make significant strides. A primary focus should be on eradicating gender-based violence, achievable through the enactment and strict enforcement of protective laws and policies. Raising awareness to shift cultural and social norms that perpetuate violence against women is also crucial. Concurrently, promoting women’s economic empowerment is vital. This can be realized by providing educational and training opportunities for women and creating a supportive environment for their active participation in the labor force. Moreover, the government should encourage gender equality in recruitment and promotion policies within companies. Another critical aspect is enhancing women’s representation in political and economic decision-making roles, which can be facilitated by laws promoting gender parity and affirmative action policies within political parties. Despite some progress, disparities in gender-based violence, labor force participation, and women’s representation in decision-making roles persist. Addressing these areas will significantly contribute to achieving sustainable development through gender equality in Nigeria.

Ensuring access to clean water and sanitation

Finally, in the pursuit of clean water and sanitation, Nigeria needs the collective effort of the government, civil society, and other stakeholders. A key focus should be on improving infrastructure, achievable through increased funding for water and sanitation projects and the adoption of innovative technologies. Alongside this, promoting safe hygiene practices is critical and can be fostered through awareness campaigns and education on hygiene. Incentivizing communities that adopt these practices can also be an effective strategy. Additionally, addressing the challenges posed by climate change is imperative. This involves implementing climate-resilient water and sanitation infrastructure and promoting sustainable water management practices. Despite some advancements, issues like inadequate infrastructure, poor hygiene practices, and climate change impacts continue to hinder progress. By focusing on infrastructure improvement, hygiene promotion, and climate-resilient strategies, Nigeria can make substantial progress towards achieving sustainable access to clean water and sanitation for all.

Nigeria’s progress and remaining challenges in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals

Since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by the United Nations in 2015, Nigeria has witnessed progress in certain areas while grappling with persistent challenges across various goals. This conclusion highlights the need for sustained efforts from the Nigerian government, international organizations, and civil society in addressing poverty eradication, hunger reduction, healthcare improvements, quality education, gender equality, and access to clean water and sanitation. Additionally, continuous monitoring, evaluation, and resource mobilization are crucial to achieving these goals by 2030.

Poverty eradication

Despite the efforts of the Nigerian government to combat poverty, the country still faces significant challenges in this area. Limited access to economic opportunities, inadequate social safety nets, and unequal wealth distribution continue to impede progress. To effectively eradicate poverty, Nigeria needs to implement comprehensive poverty reduction strategies, including job creation, skill development programs, and targeted interventions in marginalized communities.

Hunger reduction

Nigeria has made some strides in reducing hunger, but the prevalence of food insecurity remains a major concern. Limited access to arable land, climate change-induced challenges, and conflicts in some regions contribute to this persistent problem. The government must prioritize investment in agriculture, promote sustainable farming practices, and strengthen social protection programs to achieve significant progress in hunger reduction.

Healthcare improvements

Improving healthcare remains a critical challenge for Nigeria. While there have been advancements in healthcare infrastructure and the provision of essential services, access to quality healthcare remains unequal across the country. Universal healthcare coverage, increased funding for healthcare, and proactive community-based efforts are essential to bridge the healthcare gap and ensure better health outcomes for all Nigerians.

Quality education

Nigeria faces significant challenges in providing quality education to its citizens. Issues such as inadequate infrastructure, insufficient qualified teachers, and a high number of out-of-school children persist. Furthermore, gender disparities and insufficient access to educational opportunities for marginalized groups hinder progress towards achieving quality education. To address these challenges, the Nigerian government must prioritize education funding, implement comprehensive teacher training programs, and ensure inclusive educational policies.

Gender equality

Gender equality is crucial for Nigeria’s socio-economic development. Despite policy frameworks and legal provisions promoting gender equality, women still face discrimination and unequal opportunities. Gender-based violence, limited access to economic resources, and cultural norms continue to hinder progress. The Nigerian government should implement affirmative action policies, enhance women’s participation in decision-making processes, and provide economic empowerment opportunities to foster gender equality.

Access to clean water and sanitation

Access to clean water and sanitation remains a significant challenge in Nigeria, particularly in rural areas. Limited infrastructure, inadequate maintenance, and pollution of water sources contribute to the problem. To achieve universal access, the government needs to invest in water and sanitation infrastructure, prioritize hygiene education, and strengthen water governance systems to ensure sustainable water resource management.

Continuous monitoring, evaluation, and resource mobilization

To achieve the SDGs by 2030, Nigeria must establish comprehensive monitoring and evaluation mechanisms. Regular assessment of progress, identification of gaps, and data-driven decision-making are crucial in guiding policy formulation and intervention strategies. Additionally, resource mobilization from both domestic and international sources is essential for the successful implementation of sustainable development projects. Nigeria has made progress in some areas of the SDGs since their inception, but significant challenges persist across various goals. Poverty eradication, hunger reduction, healthcare improvements, quality education, gender equality, and access to clean water and sanitation require sustained efforts from the Nigerian government, international organizations, and civil society. Continuous monitoring, evaluation, and resource mobilization are crucial to achieving the SDGs by 2030. It is through collective action, effective policies, and targeted interventions that Nigeria can overcome these challenges and ensure a sustainable and prosperous future for its citizens.