The Effect of Teachers’ Housing Conditions on Teachers’ Attitude Towards Work in Government-Aided Secondary Schools in Kyeizooba Sub-County, Uganda

Introduction

Globally, numerous studies have highlighted a concerning decline in teacher performance, manifested in rising absenteeism, inadequate lesson preparation, and ineffective teaching methodologies. This decline has been further exacerbated by unfavorable working conditions and diminishing professional status for teachers in many regions (Zulkiflee et al., 2021). Historically, teaching in the early 20th century was viewed more as a vocation than a formal profession, often characterized by low wages and minimal benefits. However, the professionalization of education and the rise of teacher unions in the mid-20th century, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s, led to notable improvements in remuneration, job security, and overall working conditions through collective action, including strikes and protests. In Uganda, teacher remuneration remains a pivotal factor in the delivery of quality education. According to the Ministry of Education and Sports (2021), well-compensated and motivated teachers are essential for national development, given the centrality of education in fostering social, economic, and political transformation. To address performance and quality challenges in the education sector, the government has established several quality assurance mechanisms, such as the Directorate of Education Standards (DES), District Education Officers (DEOs), District Inspectors of Schools (DISs), and School Management Committees (SMCs). However, the socio-political upheavals of the 1970s and 1980s, marked by insecurity and military coups, led to the collapse of critical government systems, negatively affecting both the performance and welfare of teachers (Ministry of Education and Sports, 2021). In response, initiatives such as the Strengthening Education Systems for Improved Learning (SESIL) project have been introduced. These include enhanced supervision, annual teacher performance appraisals, customized performance targets for headteachers, and structured performance agreements to promote accountability and effectiveness (Namuddu, 2020).

The theoretical framework guiding this study is rooted in Frederick Winslow Taylor’s Scientific Management Theory (1911), which emphasizes increasing employee productivity through efficiency and structured management practices. Taylor articulated four key principles: (1) scientifically studying work processes to determine the most efficient methods; (2) selecting and training workers systematically; (3) matching workers to tasks for optimal productivity; and (4) fostering cooperation between management and workers to ensure economic and effective outcomes (Herzberg, 1959; Prasad, 2013). Taylor asserted that productivity improvements must be coupled with tangible benefits for workers, advocating for a system where increased efficiency leads to higher compensation. This theory is particularly relevant to the education sector, where systematic staff appraisal is essential to identify training needs and enhance teacher capacity. School governance structures are tasked with facilitating continuous professional development and capacity building, ensuring that teachers are well-equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to achieve institutional goals. Schools are increasingly adopting scientific training methods, consistent with Taylor’s philosophy, to improve teacher effectiveness and overall institutional performance (Altouby et al., 2020). In this study, attitude toward work is conceptualized as the degree to which a teacher contributes to achieving school objectives. This includes critical professional tasks such as preparing schemes of work and lesson plans, maintaining records of work done, using learners’ registers, actual classroom instruction, conducting assessment and evaluation, participating in staff meetings, managing student discipline, engaging in co-curricular activities, and offering counseling and guidance services. In Uganda, numerous policy initiatives and reforms have been implemented by the Government of Uganda to ensure equitable access to quality education at all levels. This aligns with the mission of the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), which is “to provide for, support, guide and co-ordinate, regulate, and promote quality education and sports to all persons in Uganda for national integration, individual and national development” (MoES, 2021).

In Bushenyi District, educational institutions are categorized by local governments as either government or government-aided secondary schools, with increasing attention placed on teachers’ attitudes toward work. The Government of Uganda plays a central role in this context by deploying trained teachers, paying salaries and allowances, providing educational materials and capital development inputs, and issuing national guidelines for student selection and admissions (Huylebroeck & Kristof, 2015). However, the district continues to grapple with persistent challenges such as teacher absenteeism and disengagement, which are linked to systemic issues. Notably, teacher salaries consume nearly 80% of the recurrent education budget, underscoring the financial burden of teacher remuneration. The quality of education is directly influenced by the competence and commitment of teachers, emphasizing the need for strong teacher training programs. Moreover, teachers are instrumental in the successful implementation of education reforms, necessitating their active engagement and clear understanding of such reforms. An increased supply of qualified teachers remains vital to meeting Uganda’s national education goals (Mahadi, 2018). Despite some progress, Bushenyi District, and Uganda more broadly, continues to face issues with teacher performance, highlighting the importance of examining how teacher remuneration affects their work attitudes, particularly in government-aided secondary schools in Kyeizooba Sub-County.

Teacher remuneration has become a central concern in contemporary school administration, as it directly impacts the work environment and staff motivation (Maicibi, 2005). In Uganda, the teaching profession has experienced a significant attrition of skilled and dedicated teachers due to poor pay. Many have exited the profession, citing insufficient remuneration as a primary reason (Bamusananire, 2010). What was once a revered and dignified profession has, in recent years, become subject to public ridicule and dissatisfaction, largely attributed to inadequate compensation (Sekiwu, 2013). Teachers often enter the profession not only to pursue a meaningful career but also to earn a sustainable livelihood. They expect to achieve personal, familial, and community upliftment, as well as improved social status, outcomes that are inextricably linked to a positive attitude toward work (Ogunsaju, 2002). Ideally, teachers should be provided with favorable working conditions, including decent accommodation, meals, and access to medical care, in order to facilitate optimal performance. However, this ideal remains largely unmet. According to the 2020 Bushenyi District Local Government Education Report, teacher remuneration is a major determinant of teachers’ attitudes and performance in government secondary schools. The report highlighted a decline in performance, with failure rates standing at 17% in 2021 and 11.4% in 2022. These trends are attributed to poor teacher remuneration, which negatively influenced lesson planning, classroom instruction, and assessment quality. Given this background, the present study seeks to investigate how teacher remuneration influences their attitude toward work in government-aided secondary schools within Kyeizooba Sub-County, Bushenyi District.

Literature review

This study examined the Effect of Teachers’ Housing Conditions on Teachers’ Attitude Towards Work in Government-Aided Secondary Schools. Globally, housing is recognized as the second most important human need after food. It is a fundamental human right and extends beyond the provision of mere shelter (Komardi & Panjaitan, 2022). Komardi and Panjaitan (2022), in their study titled “Leadership Style, Commitment, and Work Motivation on Job Satisfaction and Teacher Performance at the Vocational School of Multi Mekanik Pekanbaru”, investigated the effects of leadership style, commitment, and motivation on job satisfaction and teacher performance. The study sampled 81 participants using purposive sampling, with leadership style, commitment, and motivation as the exogenous variables, while job satisfaction and teacher performance were the endogenous variables. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) via Partial Least Squares (PLS). The results revealed no significant effects of leadership style, commitment, or motivation on job satisfaction. Similarly, these factors did not significantly impact teacher performance, except for leadership style, which showed a significant positive influence. These findings suggest that external motivators like housing could serve as more practical tools for enhancing teacher attitudes and performance. Housing, therefore, can offer not only shelter but also investment opportunities and cultural prestige, thereby positively influencing teachers’ attitudes toward their work. It serves as a symbol of professional success, enhances social acceptance, and affects how a teacher is perceived by their family and community (Ismail, Ab Hamid, & Badlishah, 2021). In Uganda, many teachers live in informal settlements or slums with insecure tenure and poor housing-related services. Housing remains unaffordable for most members of the teaching profession, making it difficult for families to access decent living conditions. Kebuaku and Tengeh (2018), in their study “Achieving Quality Education by Understanding Teacher Job Satisfaction Determinants,” highlighted that inadequate housing remains a critical barrier to teachers’ job satisfaction and performance. Consequently, providing teachers with adequate housing can help them focus on their teaching responsibilities, reduce absenteeism and lateness, and enhance their professional status (Rosemary & Samuel, 2021).

Similarly, Setsabile and Cliff (2015), in their case study “Enabling the Affordable Housing Mandate: The Case of the Swaziland National Housing Board (SNHB),” examined the challenges faced in delivering affordable housing. Using a triangulated approach that integrated both qualitative and quantitative data, their findings revealed operational difficulties within the SNHB due to misalignment with its affordable housing mandate. The organization shifted its focus to full-cost recovery projects catering to various income levels, which drew criticism for competing with private developers and straying from its original mandate. Muhadi and Sathasivam (2022), in their research “Job Satisfaction among Administrative Staff in the Health Department,” assessed job satisfaction among administrative personnel in the Johor State Health Department, Malaysia. They used self-developed questionnaires to collect data from 108 respondents across various departments. Analysis through t-tests and one-way ANOVA revealed no significant differences in organizational job satisfaction across the departments. However, bivariate correlation analysis showed that most of the examined factors significantly influenced job satisfaction (p < 0.01), except for operating conditions. These findings suggest that, across sectors, job satisfaction remains a complex issue influenced by various factors—housing being a key component. In conclusion, one of the most challenging issues organizations face in workforce management is job satisfaction. Adequate housing for teachers can serve as a powerful motivator, improving job satisfaction, reducing stress, and enhancing commitment and performance in government-aided secondary schools (Eze et al., 2023).

Oluwoye (2008), in a study assessing the persistent housing shortages in developing countries using Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria, as a case study, suggested the progressive increase in the supply of high-quality and affordable housing units to ease the perennial housing crisis. The study recommended that governments provide mortgage insurance for first-time homebuyers without credit histories and for low- to middle-income earners such as teachers to enhance access to affordable housing. Similarly, Muhadi and Sathasivam (2022) advocated for restrictions on the importation of building materials and emphasized the importance of researching local building materials to make housing more affordable. While these studies share a common concern for housing accessibility, they differ from the current study in terms of objectives and geographical focus. In many developing countries, including Uganda, most teachers are forced to rent accommodation and incur daily transport costs to their workplaces. These expenses are drawn from their already low salaries. If sufficient housing units were available to accommodate teachers near schools, issues related to rent and transportation could be mitigated, thereby enhancing job satisfaction (Lee et al., 2022). Lim (2022) further argued that differences in job satisfaction levels among teachers could partly be attributed to disparities in qualification profiles between rural and urban educators. However, a more pressing factor lies in the significantly higher cost of living and daily challenges urban teachers must contend with. Malik, Danish, and Munir (2022) explored the impact of pay and promotion on job satisfaction within higher education institutions in Pakistan. Using a non-probability random sampling technique and multiple regression analysis, they distributed 200 questionnaires employing a 5-point Likert scale. The sample comprised randomly selected staff from public and private universities in Punjab, Pakistan. Their findings supported existing literature: pay had a significant impact on job satisfaction, while promotion had a comparatively lower and partially significant influence. The study highlighted that housing remains unaffordable for many in the teaching profession, with numerous families unable to access decent, formal housing. As previously noted, providing adequate housing for teachers improves their working conditions, enabling them to focus on their instructional duties. Reduced commuting distances to school may lead to lower absenteeism and tardiness, while also elevating a teacher’s professional status. In many developing nations, job satisfaction is primarily driven by income and job security, especially in contexts characterized by economic instability and widespread unemployment (Malik, Danish, & Munir, 2022). The Ministry of Education (2021) supported a study in the Bugisu sub-region of Uganda that examined staff remuneration and teachers’ attitudes toward work in public primary schools. It found that housing had a statistically significant impact on teacher performance. However, there was a noted lack of adequate housing for teachers, forcing many to reside in rented accommodations far from school premises. Specifically, schools in Kapchorwa District faced significant challenges in providing decent housing for their staff. Findings by Kigenyi and Kakuru (2017) concluded that improved provision of teachers’ housing correlates with enhanced teacher performance. Unfortunately, schools in Kapchorwa District neither provide enough teachers’ houses nor rent homes for their staff. Therefore, for schools to increase teacher performance, they must prioritize the construction of additional housing units for teachers (Ministry of Education, 2021). This previous study focused exclusively on the Bugisu sub-region and did not cover government primary schools in Tingeyi County, Kapchorwa District. According to the National Centre for Environmental Health (2022), safe and affordable housing is a basic necessity for all families. Without suitable living conditions, individuals cannot fully contribute to society, children’s learning suffers, and family well-being is undermined.

Methodology

The study adopted a cross-sectional research design, as recommended by Sekaran (2003). This design was chosen due to its cost-effectiveness and time efficiency, as it enables the collection of data from respondents at a single point in time. It also facilitated the triangulation of information gathered through questionnaires and interviews. According to Lavrakas (2008), cross-sectional designs allow for the use of different data collection modes such as self-administered questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. Furthermore, Moule and Goodman (2010) highlight that this design is appropriate when data representing the status quo at a specific point in time is needed, thus helping to save both time and resources. Amin et al. (2014) also advocates for the integration of both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, particularly in research involving large populations, as this enhances scientific understanding by capturing diverse opinions through methods like questionnaires.

Results and discussions

Conclusions and recommendations

This study examined the relationship between teachers’ housing conditions and their attitude towards work in government-aided secondary schools in Kyeizooba Sub-County, Bushenyi District. The findings reveal that teachers’ housing conditions have a significant impact on their motivation, job satisfaction, and overall performance. In particular, inadequate housing, characterized by overcrowding, environmental hazards, and poor ventilation, was shown to negatively affect teachers’ health, which in turn undermines their ability to focus on their professional responsibilities. On the other hand, stable and decent housing improves teachers’ well-being, fosters motivation, and enhances their commitment to the teaching profession. The results align with existing research, which suggests that comfortable and secure housing is directly linked to better physical and mental health, leading to improved work efficiency and engagement. Teachers with adequate housing are more likely to pursue professional development opportunities, engage in career-enhancing activities, and build stronger relationships with students. While housing stability also influenced teachers’ involvement in their local communities, this effect was less pronounced, indicating that other factors may contribute to community engagement. These findings underscore the importance of addressing teachers’ housing conditions within broader educational reform initiatives. Policymakers should prioritize improvements in housing as a key strategy for enhancing teachers’ job satisfaction, performance, and overall well-being. In particular, affordable housing options are essential in rural areas, where a lack of accessible housing further exacerbates the challenges, teachers face in their professional roles. Ultimately, the evidence from this study emphasizes that housing stability is crucial in shaping teachers’ attitudes toward their work. Addressing the housing needs of teachers, especially in resource-constrained settings such as rural Uganda, will foster a healthier, more motivated, and effective teaching workforce. This, in turn, will lead to better educational outcomes for students. In conclusion, improving teachers’ housing conditions, along with other aspects of their remuneration such as meal provision and medical care, should be viewed as a strategic investment in their well-being, ultimately enhancing their job performance and satisfaction.

Ethical declaration

Review and/or approval by an ethics committee was obtained from Kampala International University, Western Campus, with the REC Number KIU-2025-1102.

Informed consent

Consent to Participate and Consent to Publish were obtained from all participants.