Habits of Mind as a Catalyst for 21st Century Skills and Environmental Sustainability: A Bibliometric Analysis with a Focus on SDG 6 in Educational Research

Concept of habit of mind

It refers to ways of thinking and acting that individuals use as they deal with difficult problems (Ariyati & Fitriyah, 2024; Hidayati & Idris, 2020; Susilowati, Hartini, Mayasari, et al., 2018). They are not only skills you learn but also common ways of thinking that guide us in resolving a variety of problems. If a person is said to have a good habit of mind, they are ready to work on a challenge, use critical thinking and keep going when the task challenges them. Through this approach, people get to think about how they think and use the experience to improve their solutions to problems.

The growth of these mindsets greatly benefits learning, most of all when situations are unpredictable and challenging. Cognitive dispositions which contain values, attitudes and behaviors, are important for managing hard learning tasks (Carroll, 2012; Crick, 2009). Because today’s challenges change often and can be complex, people need to be able to think critically, be creative and stay motivated and adaptive. Learning these habits allows someone to excel in the short term and also helps them become better at learning as time passes.

Currently, habit of mind is identified as important for teaching students to adapt, a trait widely needed in today’s rapidly changing world. It was found through research in Indonesia that students planning to become teachers mostly rely on self-regulation, while critical thinking and creative thinking are the next most important habits (Ariyati & Fitriyah, 2024). With industries and societies growing and changing, individuals have to keep up by adapting, innovating and using the skills needed to read, understand and apply new data from their environment. Being flexible with our thinking is very important now, given the rapid progress of technology. Developing this skill allows students to solve challenges well and become more creative (Choi, 2024). For this reason, habits of mind are vital for everyone and help people handle the changing demands of their lives, jobs and active participation in society. As a result, these habits are essential for shaping people able to keep up and do well in the modern, globalized world.

Habit of mind and its role in 21st century skill development

In recent years, there has been a growing emphasis within educational frameworks worldwide on developing 21st-century skills, which include critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and communication. These skills are vital for success in a globalized world where innovation and complex problem-solving are essential for navigating the challenges of the future. Habits of mind are central to these frameworks because they provide the foundational cognitive and affective capacities needed to engage with and solve complex problems (Ariyati et al., 2020, 2021). These cognitive habits foster the adaptability, resilience, and creative thinking required to innovate and tackle new challenges. Integrating habits of mind into educational curricula has been shown to improve students’ ability to apply knowledge in diverse contexts, as well as their capacity to think critically and creatively. By honing these habits, students are better equipped to approach challenges with perseverance and the ability to continuously adapt, qualities that are crucial for lifelong learning and professional success.

Several pedagogical models have been explored to nurture habits of mind in educational settings. Among the most prominent models are inquiry-based learning, problem-based learning (PBL), and experiential learning. Problem-based learning (PBL) engages students with authentic challenges, promoting interdisciplinary teamwork and the practical use of acquired knowledge (Singha & Singha, 2024). These approaches encourage students to engage actively with real-world problems, thereby fostering reflection, critical thinking, and perseverance key components of habits of mind. Inquiry-based learning promotes curiosity and exploration, while PBL emphasizes the application of knowledge to solve practical problems, helping students develop problem-solving abilities and self-regulation skills. Experiential learning, on the other hand, provides students with hands-on, real-world experiences that reinforce cognitive and behavioral habits by encouraging direct interaction with the environment. Habits of mind such as critical thinking, creativity, and self-regulation are fundamental for sustained learning and character formation, supporting adaptive and reflective learners (Ariyati et al., 2020; Susilowati, Hartini, Mayasari, et al., 2018).

These teaching methods not only develop intellectual capacities but also nurture emotional and social skills, such as collaboration, empathy, and self-awareness, which are equally important for personal and professional success. In particular, PBL has been widely adopted in various educational systems to cultivate habits of mind, as it requires students to work collaboratively, engage in critical thinking, and demonstrate persistence in finding solutions to complex problems. These models reflect a growing recognition that fostering habits of mind is not just about teaching content but also about developing the dispositions that allow students to thrive in a rapidly changing world.

Habit of mind in relation to Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6)

Researchers today are recognizing that habits of mind help promote both environmental literacy and education for sustainability, especially since the United Nations created the Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) to emphasize clean water, sanitation and sustainable water management. Reaching the goals for sustainability such as SDG 6, greatly depends on education. During the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005–2014), the goal was to add sustainability ideas to education across the world (Boyle et al., 2014; Moscardo, 2015). As environmental challenges of water scarcity, pollution and climate change increase fast, it is crucial for students to learn critical thinking, how to think ethically and about systems. As a result of these habits, pupils can both comprehend and apply their understanding to problems in environmentally sound ways. If students are taught responsible water and sanitation practices, they can learn to help protect resources and the environment when they are adults.

Adding these ways of thinking to school curriculum is necessary in order for students to gain skills needed to face current and future problems in the environment (Ardoin et al., 2020; Vira, 2019). This approach supports students to think deep about their actions and choose ways to help the environment. Thanks to systems thinking, students can see the connections among natural resources, communities and ecosystems and take a fuller view of sustainability. Since we are experiencing issues like less water or natural resources, more pollution and greater scarcity, ethical decision-making is now more essential than ever. Any education system that encourages these mindset habits will allow students to help protect the environment which helps reach SDG 6 and leads to long-term sustainability all around the world.

Habit of mind in the context of Indonesian education

Indonesia’s educational system is currently undergoing reforms aimed at enhancing learning quality and equity across diverse regions. However, research on habits of mind remains limited, with most studies focusing on cognitive skills like critical thinking without explicitly addressing the broader dispositional habits necessary for adaptive learning. Some Research on prospective teacher students in Pontianak, Indonesia, indicates that self-regulation, critical thinking, and creative thinking are well-developed habits of mind, with self-regulation being the most dominant and creative thinking the least (Ariyati & Fitriyah, 2024).

The Kampus Merdeka policy strives to reform Indonesia’s education system by fostering flexible, student-centered learning aligned with industry demands and individual growth, despite concerns regarding institutional readiness for implementation (Saa, 2024; Voak et al., 2023). The challenge lies in developing culturally responsive models that integrate local wisdom with global cognitive frameworks to foster habits of mind effectively.

Research models and approaches for developing habits of mind

Many instructional approaches can promote the growth of good habits in students in schools. Applying Inquiry Based Learning (IBL) to students motivates them to be curious, question and think deeply as they research (Chen, 2021). Collaboration between students and critical thinking were greatly improved by the use of the Scaffolding Model in physics classes (Susilowati et al., 2019). These approaches guide students to take charge of their thinking by planning, tracking and reflecting on what they do. Using Edutainment and Game-Based Learning, students interact with the material and grow in creativity, motivation and perseverance.

Combining these models with material that reflects Indonesian culture and life habits, supports strong habits of mind. With these methods, students can apply what they learn in class to their real lives and build skills useful in our sustainable world.

Data collection

Bibliometric analysis looks at research output based on statistics that count how much is published, raises awareness and involves teamwork (Marvi & Foroudi, 2023; Sillet, 2013; Valérie & Pierre, 2010). To reach the study’s goals, Scopus databases were used because they have a rich and well-reviewed collection in many disciplines. To gather the data, we combined search terms for “habit of mind” with terms about education and sustainability. The goal was to review as many different books that had been published between 2010 and 2025. For a better overview, we mapped data from journals and citations using VOSviewer to show patterns in co-authorship, co-citation and how keywords are connected, highlighting areas of academic interest and patterns of collaboration among researchers. Thanks to these tools, I was able to look closely at the trends, important factors and connections among the research studies.

Search strategy

Authors usually find their data through Scopus, Web of Science and Dimensions, studying publication rates, how often articles are cited and the degree of international research cooperation (Petera, 2017; Sundar & Gurupandi, 2025). Scopus was chosen as the leading data provider because it covers a broad range of peer-reviewed journals, keeps accurate citations and is famous in academic bibliometrics. The process involved finding studies that mention educational habits of mind through using keywords and Boolean words. We mainly used the terms:

To narrow down the results, filters were applied, including publication dates from 2010 to 2025, with language restricted to English. The dataset includes only journal articles, conference papers and book chapters. This year range was selected to highlight recent advances and ongoing trends, guaranteeing the research would be helpful for present challenges and those about sustainability, as well as development of thinking skills in education.

Analysis tools

We used several bibliometric tools to study the data. Most of my network mapping work was done with VOSviewer. Building and exploring bibliometric networks is most effective with VOSviewer (Jayasree & Baby, 2019; Lim et al., 2024). As a result, it was possible to pinpoint groups of research, notable contributors and new subjects related to habits of mind, education and sustainability. Using VOSviewer, it was possible to see how authors collaborated and how key research topics progressed over the years.

Citation analysis was also explored using Publish or Perish, along with VOSviewer. Thanks to this tool, users could see important statistics like the h-index and find influential articles that help show how specific studies impact their field (Herawan et al., 2024a, 2024b; Nandiyanto et al., 2023; Obuseh & Duffy, 2022). Using Microsoft Excel, we were able to organize the bibliometric information and record trends by year, country and journal (Janzen, 2022; Nageye et al., 2024). Combining all these tools enabled the study to review the entire research landscape, showing which topics were well-established and which were just developing, mainly in areas where habits of mind meet sustainable development and changes in education.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The study includes specific document types journal articles, conference papers, and reviews to ensure a focus on peer-reviewed, scholarly publications (Hallinger & Kovačević, 2022; Sahni & Kaurav, 2023). The study included publications that explicitly addressed the concept of habits of mind within the context of education, learning strategies, and cognitive skill development. Both empirical and theoretical studies were considered to provide a comprehensive view of the research landscape. The aim was to capture a wide range of studies that explore how habits of mind are applied within educational frameworks and how these cognitive dispositions contribute to student learning and development.

To ensure the quality and relevance of the analysis, studies focusing exclusively on unrelated cognitive domains or those outside of educational contexts were excluded. Additionally, only peer-reviewed publications that provided sufficient bibliometric data within the Scopus database were included. This approach helped maintain the integrity and reliability of the findings, ensuring that the selected studies met high academic standards and were relevant to the objectives of the research (Lim et al., 2024).

Data analysis

The bibliometric data was analyzed quantitatively to uncover key trends in the publication of research related to habits of mind, as well as the geographical distribution of these studies. This analysis helped to identify influential authors and institutions that have made significant contributions to the field, along with thematic areas that have been the focus of research. Co-occurrence and network analyses were conducted to identify dominant research clusters and emerging topics (Cech, 2017; Hosseini et al., 2025), highlighting the evolution of research in this area and the intersections with other disciplines, such as environmental education and sustainability.

A particular focus was placed on the presence and nature of Indonesian studies within the broader research landscape. By examining the volume and quality of publications originating from Indonesia, the study aimed to assess the national research landscape and identify gaps in the current body of knowledge. This approach provided valuable insights into the unique challenges faced by Indonesian education, as well as opportunities for future research to address these gaps, particularly in relation to the integration of habits of mind and sustainability education within the country’s educational system.

Publication trends (2010-2025)

A steady increase in research on habits of mind in education is seen in publications between 2010 and 2025. Since around 2015, studies on cognitive dispositions have increased rapidly, as it became clear to the world that critical thinking, problem-solving and perseverance are vital to learning in the 21st century.

The highest level of income growth was seen during 2021–2023 due to how the COVID-19 pandemic affected traditional education. Because learning moved to remote and hybrid models, the significance of adaptive cognitive skills (Lin & McNab, 2005a, 2005b) became more noticeable and researchers became more interested in studying habits of mind. They point out that there is increasing scholarly agreement that these attitudes must be part of teaching in order to help learners meet modern challenges.

Figure 1. Annual publication counts on habits of mind research from 2010 to 2025.

Highly cited papers

Using citation numbers, bibliometric analysis found the most influential publications about habits of mind in education. Published in 2015, Martin’s article is the most cited, with 582 mentions in other works, showing the great importance of making in education for encouraging both innovative and perseverant learning from students. In addition, R.W. Roeser’s (2012) research on introducing mindfulness into teacher training, cited 295 times, points out that persistence, self-control and reflection are basic skills needed in difficult learning environments.

Works like those from C. Halse (2010) on supervising doctorates, from M. Tedre (2016) concerning computational thinking and from E.R. Hollins (2011) on teacher preparation all demonstrate that cognitive abilities are necessary in different ways for students to succeed in education. They also show that habits of mind are crucial for helping both learners and educators deal with the needs of education in the 21st century.

Leading journals and institutions

A number of vital academic journals have made research on habits of mind widely accessible by continually sharing both findings and ideas on cognitive skill growth and educational transformation. JPEER, Thinking Skills and Creativity and the Educational Psychology Review are some of the best examples. They give researchers a key opportunity to debate and advance research on how cognitive dispositions help students and adapt education to modern changes.

The regular publishing of excellent articles highlights the role of these journals in guiding the field and combining cognitive psychology, education and new innovations. Because these outlets are frequently cited in bibliometric studies of habits of mind literature, it is clear they play an important role in sharing research. Organizations in the United States have the biggest impact around the world (Merigó & Yang, 2017).

Figure 2. Visualization of the top ten journals publishing research on habits of mind.

Author collaboration networks

Key contributors to the collaborative research in habits of mind are displayed clearly in the co-authorship network analysis. Researchers Lammi, M. Stephan, A.T. and Gal, I are important in the network because they help to encourage and promote joint work among peers. These networks demonstrate how institutions from many regions in North America and Europe regularly work together and exchange ideas.

Readily available research networks, including those between varying sectors and expertise, often increase the research ability and creativity of educational institutions (Dooly et al., 2022; Ismail, 2024; Makhanya, 2020). The nature of these collaborations reveals the worldwide characteristics of habits-of-mind initiatives, reflecting how different departments and schools are contributing to knowledge together. Because these networks are strong and detailed, they show there is an active and linked academic community supporting the exchange of new ideas and the growth of unique educational methods.

Figure 3. Author collaboration network in habits of mind research.

Researchers in sustainability education also form a strongly connected global community, similar to what we find in habits of mind research. Big players in sustainability research are linked in dense relationships, crossing borders and involving specialists from various fields. They show that North American and European universities mainly collaborate, sharing ideas and promoting progress in sustainability education. The strong ways people collaborate demonstrate the academic community’s joint efforts to introduce environmental education.

Figure 4. Author collaboration network in sustainability education research.

Keyword co-occurrence and thematic emphases

In co-occurrence analysis, keywords that appear together in documents allow us to discover relationships and group together topics (Bhuyan et al., 2021; Restrepo-Arango & Urbizagástegui-Alvarado, 2017; Sáez et al., 2023). It helps us see the main themes and central topics in the habits of mind research field. Some of the key themes in the data are mind, practice, education, critical thinking, science and development which all tend to appear with STEM education, new learning methods and professional development for teachers. The different themes underline the fact that the research covers both mental processes and learning situations.

At the same time, research connected to sustainability education shows that sustainability, environmental education and higher education are the top keywords. As a result, it’s clear that connecting thinking skills with a focus on the environment and sustainability is becoming more common. The increasing number of articles on habits of mind encourages us to believe more scholars see a connection between mental habits and solving environmental challenges in education.

Figure 5. Keyword co-occurrence map in habits of mind research.

Meanwhile, when sustainability education is taken into account, researchers mostly study terms such as sustainability, environmental education and higher education. They demonstrate how we are starting to focus more on using ways of thinking that support the environment and sustainability. This means researchers are increasingly considering how habits of mind can support education aimed at solving global environmental problems. The field highlights that people’s habits make ecological crises worse or better and that using sustainable approaches is key to solving these problems (Portera, 2022, 2023). This area’s keyword patterns show that education supports sustainable development by combining work on cognitive skills with a sense of responsibility for the environment and society.

Figure 6. Keyword co-occurrence map in sustainability education research.

Thematic analysis

Bibliometric methods have shown that several important themes guide research in habits of mind. Fostering strong thinking skills, creativity and perseverance in students is given greatest attention, as it reflects what is considered important for learners this century (Cusanelli & Trevallion, 2020; Dwyer et al., 2014). Many studies show that teaching STEM topics with a problem-based approach helps develop important habits of mind.

Moreover, improving teacher learning and revising the curriculum become essential for engraining habits of mind in schools of all kinds. This combination helps students gather information as well as put their skills into action during instruction (Dolfing et al., 2021; Visser et al., 2010). Although progress has been made, the analysis shows that the ideas from theories are still far from being applied effectively in education at scale and in practical ways in Indonesia. Adressing this issue is important to make sure habits of mind help students learn worldwide.

Author collaboration networks

The networks help identify important researchers and understand the structure of the academic community by showing authors who publish collaboratively and they track intellectual links and thematic clusters from how often authors are cited with each other (Khasseh et al., 2018; Scherbakova & Bredikhin, 2021). The network analysis of authors shows that numerous important research clusters exist centered around key people known for their research on cognitive skills and educational psychology. These networks show a lot of collaboration among institutions within Australia, Canada, Europe, New Zealand and the United States. Both Indonesia and other emerging economies are starting to take part in global academic circles, but their roles remain fairly small.

Global teamwork and the growth of inclusive partnerships are needed to overcome existing barriers and bring about successful knowledge sharing. By collaborating more, we could speed up the development and contextual use of habits of mind research in regions often left behind which helps equalize educational innovation everywhere.

Institutional and country collaborations

Tasks at the institutional and country levels are mainly divided between universities and research centers from North America, Europe and some parts of Asia. In North America, researchers are connected in networks that publish more, while in Europe, researchers collaborate more closely, though with less publication impact (Danús et al., 2023). We have seen an increase in Indonesian institutions partnering with major global excellence centers in recent days. They greatly help encourage research methods that are sensitive to different cultures and that relate ideas from around the world to local schooling.

These efforts are necessary to fit the habits of mind ideas to the particular problems affecting Indonesian education. When international and local expertise are combined, these cooperative actions improve educational practices and support educational development in areas that are underrepresented. Adding habits of mind to what is taught at school encourages development in the mind, emotions and physical abilities (Ariyati et al., 2020; Dwirahayu et al., 2017).

Educational strategies

Typical educational strategies used for promoting habits of mind are inquiry based learning, PBL and experiential learning. In using these approaches, students are prompted to reflect, reason and stay motivated since these are important to growing habits of mind (Akçay, 2009; Lower-Hoppe et al., 2020). Promoting active roles and asking for ongoing answers to problems helps learners gain the skills they need to face difficult everyday challenges.

A growing number of studies encourage embed, these instructional models in the national curricula internationally. The purpose of such integration is to boost learners’ ability to be flexible, strong and well-suited to today’s demands. As a result, many view including inquiry, problem-solving and hands-on activities within school systems as essential for growing the habits needed for continued academic success (Narayanan, 2010; Thomas et al., 2025).

Assessment and evaluation

To assess habits of mind, educators use tools such as self report questions, tasks that require performance and teacher reviews. To assess habits of mind, these tools look at feedback, peer assessment and self-assessment and it is peer and self-assessment that seems to connect most strongly, representing 57.1% of habit formation (Gloria et al., 2018). These methods are used to understand both mental and emotional habits that influence each habit of mind. While progress has been made, there are many tools required that address the unique differences found in schools of developing countries.

Introduced in chemistry education to look at how students think, this approach has shown important progress in self-regulation, critical thinking and creativity (Nahadi & Windani, 2017). It is crucial to assess existing gaps so that we can correctly measure how effective these interventions are at forming habits. As a result, more research is needed to develop, validate and adapt reliable tools for assessment, so educators and researchers have the right resources to support learning and teach evidence-based practices that are suitable for all cultures.

Influential authors and institutions

Costa and Kallick are leading experts whose ideas have shaped most studies in the field of habits of mind. Their studies showed that cognitive dispositions are vital for good learning and problem solving. Thanks to Costa and Kallick, Habits of Mind have made a big impact on educational models meant to boost students’ abilities to think critically and solve problems. According to them, forming practices specific to learning helps children learn and grow their brains better (Kareem et al., 2019).

Authorities in this way of thinking come from brilliant universities across the globe such as Harvard University and the University of Toronto. Universitas Sebelas Maret in Indonesia is proving to be a leading regional center which points to the increasing interest of developing nations in promoting habits of mind study. Every year, at least 10% of the revenue that is not raised by taxation is put into research and community projects by UNS and is supervised by LPPM to ensure top quality (Kusumawardani et al., 2017). Understanding who these actors are allows us to see existing research trends and provide new opportunities for collaborations internationally.

Emerging trends

Our study finds that there has been a major rise in research on habits of mind since 2015, with most studies focusing on critical thinking, creativity and integrating problem-based learning. Even though major countries continue to dominate publishing and citations in science, nations such as Indonesia are adding to the field each year. Indonesia is publishing many more scientific papers than Singapore and Thailand (Fry et al., 2023; Sukoco et al., 2023). Often, these contributions stress teaching that is fit for each culture and how effective learners are linked to helping the environment.

With the rise of these trends, there are many chances for research to use systems thinking, ethical reasoning and critical thinking to further achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6. Thinking about systems is key to resolving the closely linked problems of sustainability, especially those related to clean water and sanitation. Learning how different system components relate helps strengthen water management and sanitation (Levy et al., 2018; Sanneh, 2018; Weaver et al., 2025). Extending research on this can result in strategies that connect mental development with saving the environment worldwide.

Gaps in literature

While there is more interest in including habits of mind in education, there is still a big gap in research, primarily in places like Indonesia. Examination of physics students in Banjarmasin found that they had a stable level of self-regulation, critical thinking and creativity (Susilowati et al., 2018). Most research presently focuses on little or medium-scale projects without fully documenting how cognitive dispositions continue to influence education and environment, especially the areas covered by Sustainable Development Goal 6 (clean water and sanitation).

It is also important to recognize that very little research discusses the special problems faced in marginalized and rural regions where the gaps in education, resources and environmental concerns are the highest. Economic difficulties, inadequate infrastructure and insufficient numbers of suitable teachers are some of the main issues these regions experience in their education (Firdaussy et al., 2024; Zreik, 2023). Habits of mind are not fully explored when they are added to specific curriculum models developed for marginalized groups. Dealing with these gaps is important to guarantee that education improves sustainable development, increases equal access to learning and protects the environment in areas where it is needed most.

Policy implications for Indonesia

Indonesian policymakers should introduce to national curriculum and teachers’ training programs habits of mind that help students develop critical and creative thinking skills and place special focus on improving education in regions where there is the greatest inequality. There are substantial obstacles for remote and underdeveloped areas that make it difficult to achieve progress in Sustainable Development Goal 6. Hence, it is important for policies to emphasize the development of basic mental abilities such as systems thinking, reasoning ethically and solving environmental problems, so that educators can manage these complex matters (Ariyati & Fitriyah, 2024; Nadiroh et al., 2021).

If SDG 6 issues are introduced in science lessons, students can discover ways to ensure water is not wasted, save natural resources and improve their hygiene, all activities that support responsible citizenship. Cooperation with foreign institutions in research can speed up the growth of local skills and the adjustment of educational policies to fit the local context. Working together is crucial to match improvement in cognitive skills with Indonesia’s economic and sustainability goals, so that education methods reflect the culture and needs of the country’s various regions. Cognitive skills, apart from formal schooling, greatly influence how the economy grows. Researchers have found that these abilities greatly affect people’s income, the difference in income levels and the health of the economy (Allen et al., 2018; Hanushek, 2013).

Recommendations for future research

Future work should create assessment tools that are sensitive to student culture to better study the effects of habits of mind on student learning in environmental education that supports SDG 6. Based on research into sustainability awareness among students in Taiwan and Sweden, strong cultural differences in sustainability-related thoughts and actions were obvious, suggesting the need for assessment tools suitable for diverse cultures (Berglund et al., 2020).

Special attention should also be given to studying whether habits of mind interventions are still effective in promoting sustainable changes over the long term in outlying areas of Indonesia.

A further study of the link between how people think and sustainability education is critical. Linking how we learn new things with being aware of our surroundings can help us realize how education supports efforts to protect the planet. Sustainable Development Education (ESD) encourages students to understand other’s feelings and preserves the environment by supporting sustainable behavior (Ampuero et al., 2015; Sood et al., 2022). Besides, cooperating more with foreign countries will improve how Indonesia can adapt and extend successful educational frameworks that fit its society and culture. These steps are essential for making reforms address challenges faced by the world as well as persistent issues of educational fairness throughout Indonesia.

Summary of findings

This study of research papers reveals that habits of mind are increasingly important to 21st-century skill development. Habits of mind refer to mental, emotional and physical features that help someone become reflective, creative, self-controlled and able to solve problems well (Ariyati et al., 2020; Oehlman, 2023; Susilowati et al., 2018). It is clear from the analysis that much of the research comes from developed countries, more is being done in Indonesia and both STEM and problem-based learning frameworks use habits of mind widely. Although there has been important progress, not enough research has been done to understand habits of mind in different cultural and economic settings, especially in Indonesia. The overlap of habits of mind and sustainability education creates an interesting direction for further study.

Implications for education policy

Systematic inclusion of certain habits of mind in both the curriculum and teachers’ professional development is necessary to strengthen and increase the level of innovation among Indonesian workers. Looking at these mental skills early will make it simpler for students to face knowledge challenges and support the achievement of global development goals, including SDG 6. When learners are taught to think critically, they are able to find sustainable answers for water and sanitation, needed to reach Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Al-Noaimi, 2020; Ortigara et al., 2018).

Future research directions

Further studies are needed to create culturally appropriate tools for assessment, to study habits of mind methods over time and to review how they influence various groups of learners. Also, more research on linkages between ways of thinking and sustainability education, related to SDG 6, is necessary to drive changes in education theory and practice.