Decentralisation in Action: Understanding Organisational Culture and Employee Performance in Local Governments – A Multicontext Review for Advancing Sustainable Development Goal 16

Data collection methods

This narrative review employed a systematic approach to collect secondary data from reliable academic and policy sources. Peer-reviewed journal articles, government reports, institutional white papers, and case studies were accessed from databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, and institutional repositories. Data collection focused on studies published between 2015 and 2025 to ensure the inclusion of contemporary developments and innovations in public administration, particularly in local government settings. The selection prioritised empirical studies, theoretical analyses, and policy evaluations that addressed the five central themes: leadership practices, change management, performance management, communication patterns, and employee engagement.

Search keywords

Keywords and Boolean operators were used to enhance the specificity and comprehensiveness of the search. Primary search terms included “local government performance management,” “employee engagement in public sector,” “leadership practices and governance,” “change management in local governance,” “communication patterns in public administration,” “institutional capacity,” “inclusive governance,” and “SDG 16 implementation.” Synonyms and related terms were incorporated to capture variations in terminology such as “municipal governance,” “public service effectiveness,” “participatory governance,” and “digital governance tools.”

Inclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria ensured the relevance and quality of the data sources. Studies were included if they:

Exclusion criteria

Exclusion criteria filtered out studies that lacked relevance or credibility. These included:

Data analysis

A qualitative thematic analysis was conducted to synthesise the findings. Data from selected studies were coded according to the five themes, and patterns, trends, and best practices were identified. Comparative analysis highlighted successful interventions, contextual variations, and alignment with Sustainable Development Goal 16. This approach enabled a structured understanding of how organisational culture shapes employee behaviour and institutional performance.

Evaluation process

Each selected study underwent a rigorous evaluation for credibility, relevance, and methodological soundness. The evaluation considered the publication source, study design, sample size, data collection rigor, and analytical transparency. Findings were cross-verified with multiple sources to enhance reliability and minimise bias.

Theoretical framework

Organisational Culture Theory, as proposed by Schein (2017), provides a robust framework for understanding how deeply embedded cultural elements within institutions influence employee behaviour and performance (Akpa et al., 2021) as shown in Figure 1. The theory conceptualises organisational culture at three interrelated levels: visible artefacts, espoused values, and underlying assumptions. Artefacts, including observable practices, structures, and technology, reflect the tangible manifestations of organisational culture. Espoused values represent the declared principles, norms, and strategies that guide institutional actions, while underlying assumptions encompass the unconscious beliefs and perceptions that shape how employees interpret responsibilities, relate to colleagues, and align their actions with organisational goals and identity (Williams, 2022; Nanayakkara & Wilkinson, 2021; Makumbe & Washaya, 2022). In the local government context, these layers collectively form the cultural environment that conditions employee behaviour and institutional effectiveness (Abane et al., 2022).

Figure 1. Theoretical framework.

In applying this theory to local government, our review focuses on five central cultural practices: leadership, change management, performance management, communication patterns, and employee engagement. Leadership practices operate at both the artefact and value levels, establishing ethical standards and strategic direction, which foster trust, accountability, and alignment with institutional goals (Okanda et al., 2021). Change management reflects the capacity of institutions to adapt to reforms, technological innovations, and evolving citizen expectations, with cultures that encourage adaptability and collaborative problem-solving enabling responsive service delivery (Chychun et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2025). Performance management, informed by data-driven tools and outcome-oriented goals, strengthens institutional accountability and continuous improvement, embedding high-performance norms within the organisational culture (D’Brot & Brandt, 2024; Mulyana et al., 2021). Communication patterns, particularly when inclusive and transparent, facilitate information sharing and interdepartmental coordination, supporting responsiveness and integrated service delivery (Jeleel-Ojuade, 2024). Employee engagement represents the internalisation of cultural values at the individual level, where motivation, empowerment, and participation in decision-making translate into increased commitment and performance (Jain et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2024).

We observe that through the lens of Schein’s framework, these five interrelated cultural practices demonstrate that employee performance in local government is shaped less by external resources or individual capabilities and more by the internal cultural environment that guides behaviour, decision-making, and institutional responsiveness (Ortega & Acero, 2025; Rumbi & Christian, 2021). Strengthening these practices aligns with the principles of SDG16, promoting transparent, accountable, and effective governance (Amil, 2024, December). Consequently, the theory provides a systematic basis for understanding how leadership, adaptive change, robust performance management, inclusive communication, and active employee engagement collectively enhance local government performance, improve service delivery, and support sustainable development outcomes across diverse institutional contexts (Atisa et al., 2021).

Literature review

We provide a detailed review of literature on how leadership practices, change management, performance management, communication patterns and employee engagement affect employee performance in diverse settings in line with the attainment of SDG16. In our discussion we incorporate examples form different cultures to mirror a global perspective.

Leadership practices for achieving accountable and ethical governance

In the modern governance landscape, leadership in local government increasingly demands adaptability, digital proficiency, inclusivity, and a strong emphasis on ethical conduct (Djatmiko et al., 2025; Fannur et al., 2023). These evolving expectations have reshaped how leaders manage institutions, with a growing focus on fostering transparency, responsiveness, and accountability in alignment with SDG 16, which calls for effective, inclusive, and just institutions (Thelma & Chitondo, 2024; Meuleman, 2021).

Transformational and inclusive leadership styles have proven essential in promoting transparency and integrity (Assefa and Mujtaba, 2025). These leadership approaches empower teams, embrace diversity, and encourage innovation in service delivery (Haq et al., 2024; Moloi, 2022). In Helsinki, Finland, the city administration has institutionalised co-creation models that bring citizens into policy-making processes (Asare, 2021). These inclusive efforts have deepened civic trust and enhanced policy relevance (Leino & Puumala, 2021; Anttiroiko & Sahamies, 2022, June; Kurkela et al., 2024). In South Africa’s eThekwini Municipality, a shift towards inclusive leadership has helped address historical governance issues by emphasising transparency and ethical leadership, leading to noticeable improvements in service delivery and public satisfaction (Mpontshane & Holtzhausen, 2024; Manqele, 2021). Such models contribute directly to institutional effectiveness as envisioned in SDG 16.6.

Transparent and participatory decision-making has gained prominence through digital innovation (Hosseini et al., 2025). Platforms like Barcelona’s Decidim enable residents to shape budgetary and urban planning decisions. By institutionalising public participation, the city has strengthened citizen trust and increased accountability (Cardullo et al., 2023). In Surabaya, Indonesia, similar tools allow community members to take part in municipal budgeting, promoting local ownership and reducing elite capture (Susilo, 2023). These cases reflect how digital participation tools can open up policy-making spaces, fulfilling the aims of SDG 16.10 by increasing public access to information and participatory rights.

Digital accountability structures further enable real-time monitoring and institutional openness (Bhanye & Shayamunda, 2025). In Kenya, the Makueni County government has developed dashboards that track financial expenditures and public projects. These platforms provide accessible data to the public, reducing opportunities for mismanagement and boosting administrative integrity (Maluki et al., 2025: Muya, 2021). Likewise, cities in the United Kingdom have adopted performance-tracking systems that make local governance more transparent and citizen-oriented (Saikia, 2025; Bhatnagar et al., 2017). These examples illustrate how digital mechanisms reinforce trust in local government by holding institutions publicly accountable, a key feature of SDG 16.6.

A strategic vision aligned with the public good has become a defining trait of 21st-century local leadership (Bryson et al., 2021). In Seoul, South Korea, the “Sharing City” framework integrates technology and social equity by targeting marginalised populations and promoting inclusive development. This model demonstrates a commitment to responsive governance, aligning leadership with societal well-being (Gupta & Ahuja, 2024; Cheong et al., 2022). In Bogotá, Colombia, local leadership has centred urban safety, gender equity, and accessibility in its strategic goals, ensuring that service delivery is just and inclusive (Cheshmehzangi et al., 2025). These visions affirm the relevance of SDG 16.7, which calls for decision-making that responds to and reflects the needs of all.

In our review, we believe that leadership practices that incorporate accountability, inclusivity, digital tools, and strategic foresight have become essential levers for institutional success in a variety of contexts, both in developed and developing nations. By bolstering the legitimacy, responsiveness, and efficacy of local government institutions, these strategies not only improve internal governance structures but also directly aid in achieving Sustainable Development Goal 16.

Change management for resilient and responsive institutions

In the twenty-first century, local governments operate in highly dynamic environments shaped by rapid technological advancement, climate challenges, global health crises, and shifting public expectations (Kandpal et al., 2024). Managing continuous change has therefore become a critical function of public institutions, requiring approaches that are not only agile but also inclusive and sustainable (Abdulrahman & Dweiri, 2025). Effective change management directly supports SDG 16 by fostering institutions that are resilient, adaptable, and responsive to the communities they serve (Sharma, 2024).

Institutional readiness for smart reform plays a foundational role in enabling change (AlMalki & Durugbo, 2024). Flexible governance structures are essential for integrating innovation and responding effectively to shifting priorities (Andriyani et al., 2024). In Estonia, the government’s e-governance model exemplifies institutional readiness. By embracing digital platforms across departments, Estonia has fostered efficiency and real-time decision-making, even during global disruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Lillemets, 2023; Espinosa, & Pino, 2025). In Rwanda, reforms in local government have adopted decentralised governance models, allowing districts to quickly reallocate resources based on citizen needs (Bob & Kebede, 2025; Semina, & Bachir, 2024). These initiatives illustrate how adaptive frameworks strengthen institutional performance, aligning closely with SDG 16.6 by promoting responsive and effective systems.

Capacity building for change adaptation is equally important for institutional resilience. As technology reshapes service delivery, public servants must continually update their digital competencies (Evenseth et al., 2022). Singapore’s Civil Service College has embedded lifelong learning programmes focused on digital literacy and data analytics, enabling staff to lead transformation initiatives effectively (Lim et al., 2024). In Kenya, the Kenya School of Government has launched targeted capacity-building courses that train county officials in change leadership and digital innovation (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024). These efforts contribute to SDG 16.a by strengthening institutions through sustained investment in human capital.

Transparent communication during reform processes is a critical enabler of inclusive change. Local governments that provide timely and clear communication build trust and reduce resistance (Lim et al., 2025). In Helsinki, digital collaboration platforms such as Kerrokantasi allow citizens and employees to participate in reform discussions, fostering inclusiveness and understanding (Keinonen, 2025). Similarly, Medellín, Colombia, has institutionalised participatory planning and feedback loops that keep staff and citizens informed during changes in service delivery models (Smith et al., 2023). These approaches demonstrate the importance of transparency and collective engagement, in line with the inclusive decision-making goals of SDG 16.7.

Support systems for equitable transitions ensure that no employee is left behind during organisational change (Nuraini, 2024). Psychological support, coaching, and tailored training enable staff to adjust positively to new demands (Christina & Nathan, 2024). In Canada, municipal governments in cities like Toronto offer employee wellness and resilience programmes during restructuring efforts to help manage uncertainty and stress (MacNeil et al., 2023). In South Africa, the City of Cape Town incorporates equity-based support during digital transitions by providing accessible training to under-resourced departments (Shabalala & Campbell, 2023). These systems promote inclusivity and fairness in public sector reforms, advancing the targets of SDG 16.b by fostering non-discriminatory and equitable participation in institutional transformation.

Performance management for inclusive and effective service delivery

In contemporary governance, local governments are increasingly adopting performance management frameworks that emphasise outcomes, transparency, and citizen impact (Schoeman & Chakwizira, 2023). These systems are shifting away from rigid bureaucratic checklists toward dynamic, data-driven mechanisms that assess both individual and institutional effectiveness (Giest et al., 2025). Such reforms support the realisation of Sustainable Development Goal 16 by reinforcing transparency, inclusiveness, and responsiveness in public institutions.

Aligning employee performance targets with broader developmental goals ensures that public sector efforts contribute meaningfully to national and global priorities (Githui & Njuru, 2024). In South Korea, local governments integrate SDG into their annual planning and appraisal systems, thereby linking individual staff contributions to outcomes such as environmental sustainability and social equity (Koh et al., 2021; Park & Park, 2024). Similarly, municipalities in Finland align workforce objectives with citizen-centred service delivery outcomes, strengthening the relevance and impact of employee performance (Chandralingam, 2024). These practices directly reinforce SDG 16.6 by promoting effective, accountable, and transparent institutions.

Digital monitoring and evaluation tools are transforming how performance is tracked and assessed (Faisal, 2021, April). Platforms like Kenya’s Huduma Performance Management System use dashboards and mobile feedback channels to monitor service delivery at the local level, offering real-time data to identify gaps and promote responsiveness (SECRETARIAT, 2021; Osundwa, 2024). In Estonia, digital governance systems provide automated service audits and cross-departmental analytics that increase operational transparency (Espinosa & Pino, 2025). These systems contribute to SDG 16.10 by enhancing public access to performance data and ensuring accountability in government processes.

Embedding continuous feedback and ethical performance appraisals supports a culture of learning, trust, and fairness (Tarigan et al., 2023). With advancements in artificial intelligence, some public institutions are experimenting with bias-mitigated appraisal systems that ensure objectivity and consistency (Kheya et al., 2024). For example, Dubai’s Smart Employee Appraisal system integrates behavioural data and team input to reduce subjective bias in performance reviews (Bu Ghooma, 2024). In Sweden, municipal councils emphasise participatory appraisals that involve both peer and supervisor feedback, encouraging ethical behaviour and reinforcing institutional values. These approaches uphold SDG 16.3 by fostering just and equitable systems within local governance.

Innovative reward and recognition mechanisms help to sustain motivation, especially in contexts with limited fiscal resources (Batanova, 2024). Non-financial platforms such as Nigeria’s Public Service Innovation Challenge promote public recognition of integrity-driven employees, highlighting success stories across various localities (Suleiman, 2024). In Canada, inclusive recognition practices, like peer-nominated service excellence awards, have proven effective in building morale and reinforcing a culture of merit and public service ethos (Rundle, 2022). It is our informed opinion that such strategies align with SDG 16.7 by promoting inclusive participation and equitable recognition within institutional structures.

Communication patterns for inclusive and transparent governance

Modern public administration increasingly relies on inclusive and technologically enabled communication systems to build trust, support accountability, and improve service outcomes (Suleiman, 2024). In local government settings, communication is no longer limited to formal memos or hierarchical directives (Whetsell et al., 2021); instead, it encompasses multi-directional, real-time engagement that empowers employees and citizens alike (Pareek et al., 2025). This shift aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 16, which promotes responsive, inclusive, participatory, and transparent institutions.

Equitable and timely information sharing is a fundamental aspect of effective governance (Singh et al., 2025). By leveraging artificial intelligence, mobile platforms, and cloud-based systems, local governments can ensure that all staff and stakeholders, including those in remote or marginalised communities, receive critical updates and decisions (Poudel, 2024). In Rwanda, the IremboGov platform delivers real-time government service announcements via SMS and apps, ensuring even rural citizens stay informed (Sangwa & Mutabazi, 2025). Similarly, Singapore’s OneService app enables municipal departments to coordinate and broadcast timely updates on public services and disruptions, enhancing operational clarity and public confidence (MILLER, 2022; Perdana & Mokhtar, 2024). These initiatives contribute directly to SDG 16.10 by facilitating access to information and fostering a culture of openness.

A hybrid and inclusive communication infrastructure is essential for promoting participation across diverse groups (Hincapie & Costa, 2024). Municipalities in the Philippines use both digital town halls and in-person baranggay forums to reach urban and rural constituents (Sulasula, 2024). In Canada, municipalities incorporate multilingual platforms and accessibility tools to engage Indigenous and immigrant communities in local decision-making (Rao, 2025). These practices reflect a commitment to inclusiveness, supporting SDG 16.b by addressing the needs of underrepresented voices in governance.

An open feedback culture institutionalises trust and encourages learning across all levels of the organisation (Farnese et al., 2022). Mechanisms such as anonymous digital suggestion boxes, AI-powered sentiment analysis, and regular pulse surveys allow employees and citizens to express opinions without fear of retribution (Selvakumar et al., 2025). Estonia’s government e-platforms invite public commentary on pending local policies (Khutkyy, 2019, September), while participatory budgeting initiatives in Brazil’s Porto Alegre use mobile polling to collect citizen priorities (Blinova, 2017, June; PEREIRA & RODER FIGUEIRA, 2022, September). These approaches enhance SDG 16.7 by fostering participatory and representative decision-making.

Cross-functional collaboration platforms support coordinated service delivery by facilitating knowledge exchange and joint planning (Li et al., 2022). In Denmark, local governments utilise the cloud system to integrate planning, budgeting, and citizen service units, improving coherence and response times (Bodum et al., 2025). Kenya’s digital county dashboards allow health, finance, and agriculture departments to synchronise initiatives and share data, leading to more efficient interventions (Otundo Richard, 2024). These collaborative tools support SDG 16.6 by improving effectiveness and institutional coordination.

Employee engagement for strengthened institutional capacity

In the evolving landscape of 21st-century governance, employee engagement is increasingly recognised as a strategic lever for enhancing institutional effectiveness, transparency, and resilience (Al Ghunaimi & bin Kassim, 2024). Public institutions face mounting pressure to deliver citizen-centred services while navigating challenges such as resource constraints, digital transformation, and social inequalities (Baimenov & Liverakos, 2025). In this context, fostering a motivated, empowered, and purpose-driven workforce becomes essential to realising Sustainable Development Goal 16, which emphasises inclusive, accountable, and effective institutions.

Job satisfaction rooted in social impact strengthens employees’ sense of purpose and their alignment with public service values (Crucke et al., 2022). When roles are designed to contribute meaningfully to community well-being and offer flexibility, employees tend to exhibit higher levels of motivation and service quality (Boyd & Nowell, 2023). In Finland, local government staff report greater satisfaction when engaged in co-creating social services tailored to vulnerable populations (Boyd & Nowell, 2023; Fox et al., 2021). Similarly, Uruguay’s civil service reforms have emphasised purpose-driven job design, resulting in increased staff retention and improved citizen feedback (Mazzucato, 2022), reflecting tangible progress toward SDG 16.6.

Participatory governance that includes staff input in decision-making enhances ownership and institutional responsiveness (Lenhart & Fox, 2022). By using digital platforms to involve employees in shaping operational policies or identifying service bottlenecks, institutions foster a culture of inclusion (Othman & Al Mutawaa, 2024). In South Korea, municipal governments employ online staff forums to crowdsource innovations in waste management and e-governance (Kim & Kim, 2021). In South Africa, the use of collaborative planning tools in municipal budgeting processes encourages frontline workers to contribute their insights (Matlala, 2024), thereby advancing SDG 16.7.

Motivation driven by public trust and ethical recognition reinforces staff dedication to integrity and accountability (Mutuma, 2024). Transparent systems of appreciation that avoid political patronage and reward ethical conduct build public confidence and internal morale (Adeniji et al., 2025). In Canada, public service excellence awards honour employees based on community nominations and impact evaluations (Tong & Li, 2022). Rwanda’s Imihigo performance contracts, tied to national development priorities, publicly recognise outstanding district teams, motivating ethical behaviour and institutional loyalty aligned with SDG 16.5 (Murasi, 2021).

Equitable professional development ensures that all staff have access to continuous learning and advancement opportunities (Sharma & Angadi, 2024). E-training platforms, virtual mentoring, and blended learning methods are essential for reaching employees in dispersed or under-resourced areas (Sandy et al., 2024). In Kenya, the Local Government Training Institute offers digital courses in public finance and service ethics to both junior and senior staff (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024), while Norway uses AI-enabled career tracking to personalise development paths (Butt, 2024). These interventions promote equity and capacity-building in line with SDG 16.a.

Leadership practices for achieving accountable and ethical governance

The reviewed literature demonstrates a strong consensus on the pivotal role of inclusive and transformational leadership in enhancing accountability, transparency, and employee engagement within local government. Studies consistently show that leadership approaches grounded in empowerment foster innovation, ethical practice, and improved service delivery outcomes, particularly when reinforced by participatory governance and digital mechanisms (Assefa and Mujtaba, 2025; Haq et al., 2024; Moloi, 2022). Empirical evidence from Finland, South Korea, and South Africa highlights that strategic visions prioritising inclusivity and equity build institutional legitimacy and strengthen citizen trust (Asare, 2021; Cheong et al., 2022; Mpontshane & Holtzhausen, 2024). Digital platforms, such as Barcelona’s Decidim and Makueni County’s expenditure dashboards, further enable public access to decision-making processes, enhancing institutional responsiveness and fostering a culture of accountability (Cardullo et al., 2023; Bhanye & Shayamunda, 2025; Maluki et al., 2025). Nevertheless, the literature reveals contradictions regarding the extent to which digital and participatory reforms yield tangible service improvements. While some contexts report clear performance gains, others primarily experience perceptual benefits without demonstrable behavioural or institutional transformation (Susilo, 2023; Lim et al., 2025).

Limitations in the literature include an over-reliance on single-case studies and concentration in high-capacity urban contexts, which restricts comparative analysis across diverse governance environments (Meuleman, 2021; Thelma & Chitondo, 2024). Additional unresolved issues relate to the long-term sustainability of digital systems, risks of exclusion from e-participation, and the influence of political economy dynamics on reform outcomes (Cardullo et al., 2023; Muya, 2021; Susilo, 2023). These gaps underscore the need for comparative, longitudinal research, independent evaluations, and policy designs that integrate digital inclusion, ethical safeguards, and iterative learning processes (Hosseini et al., 2025; Bhanye & Shayamunda, 2025; Maluki et al., 2025).

Organisational culture emerges as a critical mediator connecting leadership practices to employee performance. Transformational and inclusive leadership fosters trust, empowerment, and accountability, which are reinforced through participatory decision-making and digital transparency tools (Assefa and Mujtaba, 2025; Haq et al., 2024; Bhanye & Shayamunda, 2025). Evidence from eThekwini and Helsinki indicates that alignment of strategic vision with citizen needs motivates employees, enhances service quality, and strengthens institutional legitimacy (Asare, 2021; Mpontshane & Holtzhausen, 2024). However, the translation of cultural change into measurable performance outcomes varies; high-capacity contexts often demonstrate tangible improvements, whereas low-resource environments report primarily symbolic or legitimacy-focused gains (Cardullo et al., 2023; Susilo, 2023; Lim et al., 2025). Contextual factors, including decentralisation frameworks, resource availability, and middle-management roles, account for these variations (Manqele, 2021; Shabalala & Campbell, 2023; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024). Persistent gaps include limited longitudinal evidence on performance metrics, insufficient attention to middle-management influence, and risks such as metric manipulation or staff fatigue in highly transparent systems (Evenseth et al., 2022; Nuraini, 2024; Christina & Nathan, 2024).

Policy-oriented recommendations emphasise integrating accountability mechanisms with adequate capacity support, investing in leadership development at all organisational levels, co-designing participatory platforms, and institutionalising feedback loops to safeguard against adverse outcomes while reinforcing inclusivity and alignment with performance objectives (Lim et al., 2024; MacNeil et al., 2023; Sharma, 2024). These insights collectively highlight the interplay between leadership, organisational culture, and digital participation as central determinants of employee performance and effective governance in local government contexts.

Change management for resilient and responsive institutions

The assembled literature demonstrates convergence on four interrelated pillars that underpin resilient and responsive local institutions: institutional readiness for reform, continuous capacity building, transparent communication, and equity-centred support systems (AlMalki & Durugbo, 2024; Evenseth et al., 2022; Nuraini, 2024). Evidence from multiple contexts shows that readiness, expressed through flexible governance arrangements and integrated digital platforms, enables institutions to adapt quickly to external shocks and disruptions (Lillemets, 2023; Espinosa & Pino, 2025; Andriyani et al., 2024). Research on capacity building highlights the importance of lifelong learning and targeted training as necessary conditions for public servants to master new technologies and lead change effectively (Lim et al., 2024; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Evenseth et al., 2022). The literature further points to the central role of transparent communication and participatory platforms in reducing resistance and reinforcing legitimacy during reform processes (Lim et al., 2025; Keinonen, 2025; Smith et al., 2023). Practical experiences drawn from diverse cases also underline how equity-centred support, including coaching, psychological services, and tailored training, strengthens staff well-being and sustains organisational cohesion during periods of transformation (Christina & Nathan, 2024; MacNeil et al., 2023; Shabalala & Campbell, 2023).

Despite these points of convergence, methodological limitations and substantive contradictions remain. Much of the existing work is descriptive and case-based, generating valuable process insights but leaving causal mechanisms insufficiently tested (AlMalki & Durugbo, 2024; Espinosa & Pino, 2025). The emphasis on high-capacity cases such as Estonia and Singapore creates a knowledge base that may not be directly transferable to lower-capacity or politically fragile contexts (Lillemets, 2023; Lim et al., 2024; Bob & Kebede, 2025). Gaps also persist regarding the long-term sustainability and maintenance of digital platforms, the risks of digital exclusion for participatory legitimacy, and the political economy conditions that determine whether reforms succeed or stall (Andriyani et al., 2024; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Semina & Bachir, 2024). Measurement challenges recur across the literature, with many studies relying on adoption rates or stakeholder perceptions rather than longitudinal or objective indicators of institutional performance and durability (Evenseth et al., 2022; Lim et al., 2025).

Addressing these shortcomings calls for longitudinal and comparative research that can unpack causal mechanisms and test reform instruments across contrasting settings. Comparing reforms in high-capacity contexts such as Estonia with decentralised governance models in Rwanda would help to determine which design features are context-specific and which are transferable (Lillemets, 2023; Bob & Kebede, 2025). Research should also measure the distributional effects of digital reform, particularly for marginalised groups, and assess the governance and financial arrangements required for long-term sustainability (Andriyani et al., 2024; Semina & Bachir, 2024). Policy experimentation supported by iterative pilots, embedded evaluation, and transparent feedback loops would allow governments to build an evidence base while limiting the risks of large-scale failures (Sharma, 2024; Lim et al., 2025). Priorities identified by the literature include investing in digital inclusion and staff development, institutionalising participation and transparency standards, resourcing employee support systems during transitions, and embedding independent evaluation mechanisms to monitor institutional outcomes (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Christina & Nathan, 2024; MacNeil et al., 2023).

The reviewed studies also converge on the idea that organisational culture is a decisive factor linking reform initiatives to employee performance. Leadership practices and institutional design shape cultural norms, which in turn influence staff competence, accountability, and service orientation. Programmes that promote continuous learning and transparent communication help to build a culture of responsiveness and public service, as demonstrated in Singapore and Estonia, where employees gained confidence and improved capacity to deliver services when reforms aligned training, technology, and leadership (Lim et al., 2024; Lillemets, 2023). In contrast, studies from Kenya and South Africa reveal that training without adequate institutional support and equitable access to resources generates limited performance outcomes (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Shabalala & Campbell, 2023).

Divergences in findings often reflect differences in reform design and contextual moderators. Some accounts report measurable improvements in service responsiveness and operational metrics when training is paired with process redesign and accountability frameworks (MacNeil et al., 2023; Espinosa & Pino, 2025). Others point to gains in perceptions of inclusiveness, trust, or morale without clear evidence of improved service quality or throughput (Lim et al., 2025; Smith et al., 2023). Contextual factors such as institutional capacity, administrative legacies, labour relations, and decentralisation modalities appear to explain why identical reform models generate varied results in Tallinn, Kigali, or Cape Town (Shabalala & Campbell, 2023; Bob & Kebede, 2025; Lillemets, 2023).

Persistent gaps in the literature relate to the measurement of employee performance, which is rarely captured through longitudinal administrative data or rigorous experimental designs (Evenseth et al., 2022). The role of middle managers in bridging strategic intent with frontline practice remains underexplored, despite evidence that these actors are critical to sustaining reforms over time (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024). Negative or unintended effects of reform, such as stress induced by increased transparency, metric manipulation, or inequities arising from uneven digitalisation, also lack systematic investigation (Nuraini, 2024; Christina & Nathan, 2024).

Policy interventions supported by current evidence include aligning performance measurement with investments in staff development to ensure transparency is paired with support rather than surveillance (Lim et al., 2024; MacNeil et al., 2023). Strengthening the role of middle managers through leadership development and devolved authority would improve the translation of strategic reforms into operational outcomes (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024). Safeguards such as accessible training, psychosocial support, and phased roll-outs reduce the risks of marginalisation and help preserve equity within institutions undergoing change (Shabalala & Campbell, 2023; Nuraini, 2024). Embedding routine evaluation and transparent feedback mechanisms would allow local governments to detect challenges early and adjust reforms dynamically (Sharma, 2024; Lim et al., 2025).

This literature provides a coherent blueprint for strengthening local institutions through readiness, skill development, transparent communication, and equity-based supports. Advancing this knowledge requires stronger causal evidence, cross-contextual comparisons, and robust measurement of both employee outcomes and service performance. Pursuing this research agenda will generate more reliable insights for policy-makers seeking to design local governments that are both resilient and genuinely responsive to citizens’ needs (Kandpal et al., 2024; Sharma, 2024; Lim et al., 2025).

Performance management for inclusive and effective service delivery

The literature on performance management for inclusive and effective service delivery highlights a clear shift in local governance towards outcome-oriented, transparent, and citizen-centred frameworks. Several studies converge on the argument that aligning employee performance with broader developmental priorities strengthens both institutional effectiveness and public trust (Schoeman & Chakwizira, 2023; Giest et al., 2025; Githui & Njuru, 2024). Experiences from South Korea and Finland illustrate how performance targets linked to SDG outcomes not only reinforce institutional accountability but also situate individual contributions within a larger developmental narrative, thereby increasing staff ownership and citizen impact (Koh et al., 2021; Park & Park, 2024; Chandralingam, 2024). These cases collectively demonstrate that aligning individual objectives with systemic goals enhances relevance and accountability, supporting SDG 16.6.

A recurring theme across the studies is the transformative potential of digital monitoring and evaluation systems. Kenya’s Huduma dashboards and Estonia’s automated audits exemplify how real-time data and cross-departmental analytics enable responsive decision-making and enhance transparency (SECRETARIAT, 2021; Espinosa & Pino, 2025; Osundwa, 2024). These findings suggest that digital systems not only improve efficiency but also broaden citizen access to government performance information, aligning with SDG 16.10. Yet, while these tools show promise in high-capacity environments, evidence on their sustainability in resource-constrained or digitally excluded contexts remains limited (Faisal, 2021). This gap points to the need for further research into digital equity and long-term maintenance models.

The literature also highlights the role of feedback and ethical appraisal mechanisms in embedding fairness and trust within organisational culture. AI-supported systems in Dubai and participatory feedback models in Sweden illustrate two distinct approaches: technology-driven objectivity and socially embedded inclusivity (Bu Ghooma, 2024; Kheya et al., 2024). Both approaches emphasise fairness and accountability, contributing to SDG 16.3, but variations in their application reveal contextual sensitivities. While AI may reduce bias, questions of data privacy and algorithmic transparency remain underexplored. Similarly, participatory appraisals depend heavily on cultural acceptance of peer evaluation, raising concerns about replicability across diverse governance contexts (Tarigan et al., 2023).

Reward and recognition systems emerge as critical levers for sustaining motivation in environments where financial incentives are constrained. Nigeria’s integrity-driven recognition platforms and Canada’s peer-nominated awards highlight the value of inclusive, non-financial recognition in reinforcing public service ethos and equity in acknowledgement (Batanova, 2024; Suleiman, 2024; Rundle, 2022). These mechanisms align with SDG 16.7 by ensuring inclusive participation in performance recognition and embedding fairness within institutional culture. Nevertheless, evidence on their long-term motivational effects, especially in politically unstable or under-resourced local governments, remains sparse.

Across these strands, a number of unresolved issues persist. The literature is rich in descriptive case studies but lacks longitudinal, comparative analyses that test causal impacts of performance management reforms across different governance contexts. There is insufficient examination of how digital innovations interact with institutional culture and employee behaviour over time, and limited evaluation of equity implications for digitally excluded populations. Similarly, while ethical and participatory appraisal mechanisms are widely celebrated, there is little systematic evidence on their effectiveness in improving actual service delivery outcomes rather than simply staff perceptions.

A critical policy agenda emerging from these findings includes embedding equity safeguards into digital performance systems, developing hybrid appraisal models that combine technological objectivity with participatory inclusiveness, and institutionalising recognition frameworks that emphasise merit and integrity. By aligning staff incentives with citizen impact, investing in inclusive monitoring mechanisms, and addressing gaps in digital equity, governments can strengthen the responsiveness, fairness, and accountability of local institutions in line with the aspirations of SDG 16.

Communication patterns for inclusive and transparent governance

The reviewed literature demonstrates convergence on the role of inclusive and technologically enabled communication in enhancing accountability, transparency, and participation within local government. Studies consistently highlight the capacity of digital platforms such as Rwanda’s IremboGov and Singapore’s OneService app to deliver timely information and strengthen citizen trust (Sangwa & Mutabazi, 2025; MILLER, 2022; Perdana & Mokhtar, 2024). Similarly, hybrid systems that combine digital and face-to-face communication, as seen in the Philippines and Canada, affirm the value of tailoring communication to diverse constituencies, thereby addressing equity and inclusiveness in governance (Sulasula, 2024; Rao, 2025). Research also converges on the importance of feedback mechanisms, including Estonia’s e-platforms and participatory budgeting in Brazil, which institutionalise transparency and inclusivity by ensuring that decision-making reflects public priorities (Khutkyy, 2019; PEREIRA & RODER FIGUEIRA, 2022; Blinova, 2017). Cross-functional collaboration further reinforces these benefits by integrating diverse departments for more coherent and effective governance outcomes (Bodum et al., 2025; Otundo Richard, 2024). These findings collectively affirm that inclusive communication structures directly reinforce SDG 16.6, 16.7, 16.10, and 16.b by embedding participation, access, and accountability into public administration practices.

Despite these areas of convergence, contradictions and gaps remain. While digital systems expand reach, concerns persist about the exclusion of digitally marginalised populations, particularly in rural or resource-constrained areas (Poudel, 2024; Singh et al., 2025). Case studies from technologically advanced settings such as Singapore and Estonia report robust citizen engagement, yet findings from contexts with weaker digital infrastructure suggest more limited impacts, raising questions about scalability across diverse governance environments (MILLER, 2022; Khutkyy, 2019). Variations also emerge in how feedback mechanisms influence governance outcomes—while some settings demonstrate tangible service improvements, others reveal more symbolic participation without significant policy change (Selvakumar et al., 2025; Farnese et al., 2022). Gaps include the lack of longitudinal analysis on how communication innovations affect institutional culture, limited exploration of risks such as misinformation and bias in AI-driven systems, and inadequate comparative research across Global North and South contexts (Hincapie & Costa, 2024; Pareek et al., 2025). These gaps point to the need for further studies that examine how inclusive communication patterns can be sustained, scaled, and safeguarded against unintended consequences while maintaining inclusiveness.

Organisational culture and employee performance are also shaped significantly by communication patterns in local government. Transparent, participatory, and multi-directional communication fosters cultures of trust, inclusivity, and collaboration, which in turn motivate employees to align their efforts with institutional goals (Whetsell et al., 2021; Farnese et al., 2022; Selvakumar et al., 2025). Evidence from contexts such as Canada and Finland indicates that when communication systems embrace diversity and inclusiveness, employees experience greater empowerment and accountability, leading to improved performance outcomes (Rao, 2025; Chandralingam, 2024). Conversely, findings diverge in low-resource settings, where digital divides or weak institutional feedback loops may constrain performance gains despite the adoption of communication platforms (Poudel, 2024; Singh et al., 2025). Recurring themes point to inclusivity, real-time responsiveness, and collaborative cultures as enablers of high performance, but unresolved issues include how to balance transparency with workload pressures, avoid participation fatigue, and ensure that digital innovations translate into substantive cultural and performance outcomes. Policy interventions emerging from the literature include investments in digital equity, hybrid participation strategies, culturally sensitive communication platforms, and the institutionalisation of feedback loops that connect communication with concrete policy and performance improvements (Bodum et al., 2025; Otundo Richard, 2024; Sulasula, 2024).

Employee engagement for strengthened institutional capacity

The literature consistently highlights employee engagement as a central mechanism for strengthening institutional capacity, enhancing service quality, and fostering accountability in local government. Studies converge on the importance of purpose-driven job design, participatory governance, ethical recognition, and equitable professional development as key drivers of engagement (Crucke et al., 2022; Al Ghunaimi & bin Kassim, 2024; Sharma & Angadi, 2024). Purpose-driven roles that align employee work with social impact strengthen motivation and commitment, as evidenced in Finland and Uruguay, where co-creation of services and reforms in job design have improved staff satisfaction, retention, and citizen feedback (Boyd & Nowell, 2023; Fox et al., 2021; Mazzucato, 2022). Participatory governance mechanisms that incorporate staff input in operational and strategic decision-making further enhance institutional responsiveness and foster a culture of inclusion, with examples from South Korea and South Africa demonstrating the value of digital collaboration platforms in co-designing policy and service delivery processes (Kim & Kim, 2021; Matlala, 2024; Othman & Al Mutawaa, 2024).

Motivation reinforced through ethical recognition and public trust emerges as another recurrent theme. Transparent systems that reward integrity and service excellence, as seen in Canada’s public service awards and Rwanda’s Imihigo performance contracts, cultivate organisational loyalty and strengthen accountability frameworks while contributing to SDG 16.5 and 16.6 (Tong & Li, 2022; Mutuma, 2024; Murasi, 2021; Adeniji et al., 2025). Equitable access to professional development is equally critical for sustaining capacity, particularly in contexts with dispersed or under-resourced personnel. Digital and AI-enabled training platforms in Kenya and Norway ensure that learning opportunities reach all levels of staff, supporting inclusive skill-building and long-term institutional resilience (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Butt, 2024; Sandy et al., 2024).

Despite broad agreement on these engagement strategies, gaps and contextual variations persist. Evidence from high-capacity, digitally advanced settings often reports measurable improvements in service quality and employee satisfaction, whereas developing or resource-constrained contexts face challenges in equitable access, participation, and digital literacy (Boyd & Nowell, 2023; Matlala, 2024; Othman & Al Mutawaa, 2024). Longitudinal analyses linking engagement initiatives to sustained performance, retention, and citizen outcomes remain scarce, and the role of middle managers in translating engagement into operational results is under-explored. Policy interventions emerging from the literature emphasise integrating participatory decision-making with robust professional development, embedding ethical recognition systems that are transparent and merit-based, and ensuring digital equity through inclusive learning platforms. Implementing these measures in a context-sensitive manner is critical to achieving a motivated, empowered, and ethically grounded workforce capable of delivering accountable and effective local governance (Al Ghunaimi & bin Kassim, 2024; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Mutuma, 2024).

Theoretical contribution/implications

We critically examine the literature review with the organization culture theory to identify the persistent challenges and eminent gaps.

Relationship between leadership practices literature and organisational culture theory in local government

The literature on leadership practices in local government demonstrates a strong alignment with the core tenets of Organisational Culture Theory as articulated by Schein (2017) as shown in Table 2. Leadership practices, encompassing adaptability, digital proficiency, inclusivity, and ethical conduct, operate as visible artefacts within institutions, signalling acceptable behaviours and setting expectations for employees (Djatmiko et al., 2025; Fannur et al., 2023; Assefa and Mujtaba, 2025). By embedding transformational and inclusive leadership, as seen in Helsinki and eThekwini, organisations not only establish clear espoused values around transparency and accountability but also reinforce underlying assumptions about integrity, responsiveness, and civic trust (Leino & Puumala, 2021; Mpontshane & Holtzhausen, 2024). These cultural signals directly shape employee behaviour, influencing motivation, discretionary effort, and engagement in service delivery, which resonates with Schein’s assertion that values and assumptions guide organisational performance (Williams, 2022; Akpa et al., 2021). Digital participation tools, such as Barcelona’s Decidim and Makueni County dashboards, act as technological artefacts that operationalise these values by creating mechanisms for real-time accountability and inclusiveness, thereby bridging visible practices with espoused institutional principles (Cardullo et al., 2023; Bhanye & Shayamunda, 2025; Maluki et al., 2025).

Despite these theoretical alignments, persistent challenges emerge. The literature reveals an overreliance on descriptive and single-case studies, limiting causal inference regarding how cultural interventions translate into sustained employee performance and institutional outcomes (Meuleman, 2021; Thelma & Chitondo, 2024). Regional and contextual clustering, especially in high-capacity European and East Asian cities, raises questions about the transferability of leadership models to lower-capacity or politically complex environments (Susilo, 2023; Cheshmehzangi et al., 2025). Furthermore, gaps exist in measuring the impact of underlying assumptions on staff behaviour; while espoused values and visible artefacts are well-documented, the unconscious beliefs that shape compliance, ethical conduct, and innovation remain underexplored (Makumbe & Washaya, 2022; Nanayakkara & Wilkinson, 2021). Digital initiatives, although promising, also introduce inequities through digital divides, risking the exclusion of marginalised employees or citizens from participatory governance processes (Hosseini et al., 2025; Susilo, 2023). Leadership and strategic vision, while well-theorised, are insufficiently connected to longitudinal data on service outcomes, limiting evidence on actual institutional effectiveness (Gupta & Ahuja, 2024; Cheshmehzangi et al., 2025).

Policy interventions emerging from this synthesis should address both the cultural and structural dimensions of local governance. Institutions must invest in leadership development programmes that explicitly link ethical standards, inclusivity, and digital literacy to performance expectations, reinforcing both visible artefacts and espoused values (Haq et al., 2024; Moloi, 2022). Embedding digital accountability and participation tools with training and equitable access mechanisms can reduce exclusion and operationalise transparency as a cultural norm (Cardullo et al., 2023; Maluki et al., 2025). Independent monitoring and evaluation systems should be codified to measure both employee behaviour and institutional outputs, thereby illuminating how underlying assumptions translate into practice (Muya, 2021; Meuleman, 2021). Context-sensitive reforms, such as incremental pilots and co-creation strategies with frontline staff and citizens, can strengthen ownership, embed ethical values, and provide real-world evidence for scaling effective practices across diverse governance contexts (Asare, 2021; Kurkela et al., 2024). Addressing these gaps ensures that leadership practices not only signal desired organisational culture but also tangibly improve employee performance, institutional integrity, and citizen-centred service delivery in alignment with SDG 16 (Amil, 2024; Atisa et al., 2021).

Relationship between change management literature and organisational culture theory in local government

The literature on change management for resilient and responsive local governments aligns strongly with Organisational Culture Theory as shown in Table 3, which posits that institutional practices, espoused values, and underlying assumptions shape employee behaviour and organisational outcomes (Schein, 2017; Akpa et al., 2021). Empirical evidence shows that institutional readiness, flexible governance structures, and adaptive frameworks operate as visible artefacts that signal the institution’s commitment to reform and responsiveness (AlMalki & Durugbo, 2024; Andriyani et al., 2024; Lillemets, 2023). Capacity-building programmes and continuous digital training reflect espoused values that prioritise learning, innovation, and professional competence, reinforcing a culture of adaptability (Lim et al., 2024; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Evenseth et al., 2022). Transparent communication mechanisms and participatory platforms exemplify both artefacts and values, promoting inclusiveness and trust, while support systems for equitable transitions address deeper underlying assumptions about fairness, equity, and organisational responsibility (Nuraini, 2024; Christina & Nathan, 2024; MacNeil et al., 2023). Together, these practices illustrate the cultural embeddedness of change management processes and their influence on employee engagement and institutional performance.

Despite these alignments, persistent challenges and gaps are evident. Many studies remain descriptive and case-based, limiting causal inference and the generalisability of findings to contexts beyond high-capacity governments such as Estonia or Singapore (Lillemets, 2023; Bob & Kebede, 2025; Espinosa & Pino, 2025). There is insufficient longitudinal evidence to determine the durability of reforms or the sustained impact of digital platforms on institutional resilience (Andriyani et al., 2024; Semina & Bachir, 2024). Measurement gaps persist, as studies often rely on perceptions or adoption metrics rather than objective indicators of service performance and employee effectiveness (Evenseth et al., 2022; Lim et al., 2025). Moreover, underlying assumptions, central to Schein’s theory, are rarely systematically studied, leaving unclear how deeply embedded beliefs about adaptability, equity, and accountability influence behaviour in different institutional contexts.

Policy interventions derived from this analysis should aim to reinforce both cultural and operational dimensions of change management. Governments should invest in digital literacy and continuous professional development to embed adaptive capabilities across all staff levels (Lim et al., 2024; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024). Leadership and management training should emphasise ethical conduct, equity, and participatory practices to shape both espoused values and underlying assumptions (Nuraini, 2024; Christina & Nathan, 2024). Institutionalising transparent feedback loops, co-creation platforms, and independent monitoring mechanisms can reinforce visible artefacts of accountability while ensuring that reforms are responsive and inclusive (Keinonen, 2025; Smith et al., 2023). Cross-contextual research and comparative evaluations of reform models, particularly in lower-capacity or politically complex environments, are necessary to generate transferable lessons and identify context-specific barriers (Bob & Kebede, 2025; Semina & Bachir, 2024). Embedding equity-focused support, such as tailored training, coaching, and wellness initiatives, ensures that organisational transformation does not exacerbate disparities and aligns with SDG 16’s principles of fairness, inclusiveness, and institutional effectiveness (MacNeil et al., 2023; Shabalala & Campbell, 2023).

Relationship between performance management literature and organisational culture theory in local government

The literature on performance management for inclusive and effective service delivery closely aligns with Schein’s Organisational Culture Theory, which provides a lens to understand how deeply embedded cultural elements influence behaviour and institutional outcomes as shown in Table 4. The theory’s three levels, visible artefacts, espoused values, and underlying assumptions, offer a structured way to interpret the mechanisms identified in the literature. At the level of visible artefacts, performance management frameworks increasingly incorporate digital dashboards, mobile feedback channels, and AI-assisted appraisal systems (Faisal, 2021; Espinosa & Pino, 2025; Bu Ghooma, 2024). These tangible tools reflect the institution’s commitment to transparency, responsiveness, and accountability, supporting real-time monitoring and reinforcing ethical practices. Such innovations align directly with Sustainable Development Goals 16.6 and 16.10, which emphasise effective, accountable institutions and access to information.

Espoused values, which represent the formally declared principles guiding organisational behaviour, are evident in practices that prioritise fairness, ethical conduct, and alignment with broader developmental goals (Githui & Njuru, 2024; Chandralingam, 2024; Tarigan et al., 2023). The literature indicates that when performance appraisal systems, employee recognition frameworks, and goal-setting mechanisms embed these values, they foster a culture of ethical responsibility and engagement among staff. This enhances institutional legitimacy and strengthens the link between individual performance and public service outcomes.

Underlying assumptions, which comprise deeply held, often unconscious beliefs about trust, integrity, and civic duty, influence how employees internalise institutional priorities and respond to performance expectations (Batanova, 2024). The literature suggests that when these assumptions encourage continuous learning, fairness, and inclusivity, employees demonstrate behaviours that support citizen-centred service delivery. However, persistent challenges remain. For example, digital performance tools are not always accessible to all staff, creating disparities in engagement and monitoring effectiveness (Osundwa, 2024; Espinosa & Pino, 2025). Additionally, while espoused values are formally promoted, they may not be fully internalised, leading to inconsistencies in ethical practice (Tarigan et al., 2023; Bu Ghooma, 2024). Performance metrics often emphasise procedural compliance over direct citizen impact, limiting the practical relevance of monitoring frameworks (D’Brot & Brandt, 2024). Similarly, recognition and reward mechanisms are inconsistently applied, which can weaken motivation and institutional loyalty, particularly in resource-constrained settings (Suleiman, 2024; Rundle, 2022).

To address these gaps, our review finds several policy interventions to be necessary. Expanding access to digital performance tools ensures that all employees, including those in under-resourced or rural departments, can participate in monitoring and evaluation processes (Faisal, 2021; Osundwa, 2024). Embedding ethical standards in performance appraisals and conducting regular audits reduces bias and promotes fairness (Tarigan et al., 2023; Kheya et al., 2024). Shifting performance metrics toward citizen outcomes rather than procedural compliance strengthens accountability and public service relevance (Githui & Njuru, 2024; Chandralingam, 2024). Institutionalising inclusive recognition practices and merit-based awards reinforces motivation, ethical conduct, and equitable participation across the workforce (Batanova, 2024; Rundle, 2022). Finally, programmes aimed at aligning organisational culture with shared values and assumptions help translate formal principles into everyday behaviours, fostering a resilient and ethically grounded workforce (Mulyana et al., 2021).

In sum, our literature review demonstrates that performance management practices in local government are deeply influenced by organisational culture. Aligning visible practices, declared values, and underlying assumptions with ethical, inclusive, and outcome-oriented principles enables institutions to deliver transparent, accountable, and citizen-centred services. While challenges remain in areas such as equitable access, behavioural translation, and measurement of impact, targeted policy interventions grounded in cultural understanding can enhance institutional effectiveness and support the realisation of Sustainable Development Goal 16.

Relationship between communication patterns literature and organisational culture theory in local government

The literature on communication patterns for inclusive and transparent governance demonstrates a strong alignment with Schein’s Organisational Culture Theory, which provides a framework to understand how institutional culture shapes behaviour and performance as shown in Table 5. At the level of visible artefacts, digital platforms, mobile apps, cloud systems, and collaborative dashboards exemplify tangible tools that facilitate multi-directional, real-time communication and knowledge sharing (Suleiman, 2024; Bodum et al., 2025; Otundo Richard, 2024). These artefacts demonstrate a practical commitment to transparency, accountability, and responsiveness, reflecting the organisation’s operational values and directly supporting SDG 16.6 and 16.10, which emphasise institutional effectiveness and access to information.

Espoused values, representing the formally declared principles guiding institutional practices, are evident in policies and initiatives that prioritise inclusivity, equitable participation, and open feedback (Hincapie & Costa, 2024; Farnese et al., 2022; Rao, 2025). The literature indicates that municipalities integrating multilingual platforms, participatory forums, and AI-powered feedback mechanisms reflect a culture that formally values citizen engagement and employee involvement. These espoused values promote trust, ethical interaction, and stakeholder empowerment, enhancing the institution’s capacity to respond to diverse community needs.

Underlying assumptions, which involve deep-seated beliefs about how communication should function within institutions, shape both employee behaviour and citizen interaction (Pareek et al., 2025; Jeleel-Ojuade, 2024). When these assumptions favour openness, timely information sharing, and cross-functional collaboration, employees are more likely to engage in proactive communication, and citizens gain greater confidence in governance processes. Nevertheless, persistent challenges emerge, such as digital divides that limit equitable access to communication tools, bureaucratic resistance to open channels, and inconsistent adoption of feedback mechanisms across departments (Poudel, 2024; Sangwa & Mutabazi, 2025). These gaps can reduce the effectiveness of participatory and transparent practices; undermining SDG targets related to inclusiveness and access to information.

Policy interventions are needed to strengthen communication culture in local governments. Expanding digital infrastructure and connectivity ensures that remote and marginalised communities participate fully in governance processes (Suleiman, 2024; Poudel, 2024). Standardising feedback and engagement mechanisms, including anonymous suggestion platforms, participatory budgeting apps, and AI-enabled sentiment analysis, can institutionalise transparency and reduce bias (Selvakumar et al., 2025; Blinova, 2017; PEREIRA & RODER FIGUEIRA, 2022). Training programmes focused on digital literacy and inclusive communication practices equip employees to leverage technology effectively while fostering a culture of collaboration and responsiveness (Hincapie & Costa, 2024). Finally, integrating cross-departmental dashboards and collaborative tools enhances institutional coordination, ensuring that communication underpins coherent decision-making and service delivery (Li et al., 2022; Bodum et al., 2025).

This literature demonstrates that communication patterns, when aligned with visible artefacts, espoused values, and underlying assumptions of organisational culture, can significantly strengthen inclusive, accountable, and transparent governance. By addressing the identified gaps through policy interventions, local governments can create sustainable, culturally-informed communication systems that advance the principles of SDG 16 and improve service outcomes for all stakeholders.

Relationship between employee engagement literature and organisational culture theory in local government

The literature on employee engagement in local government highlights that fostering a motivated, empowered, and purpose-driven workforce is critical for institutional effectiveness, transparency, and accountability as shown in Table 6. Empirical evidence demonstrates that job satisfaction rooted in social impact, participatory governance, ethical recognition, and equitable professional development directly contributes to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 16, particularly targets related to effective, inclusive, and accountable institutions (Al Ghunaimi & bin Kassim, 2024; Boyd & Nowell, 2023; Mutuma, 2024; Sharma & Angadi, 2024). These findings underscore that engagement practices influence not only individual motivation but also broader institutional outcomes such as citizen-centred service delivery, ethical behaviour, and organisational resilience.

Schein’s Organisational Culture Theory provides a robust theoretical lens for interpreting these findings. The theory’s three-tiered model—artefacts, espoused values, and underlying assumptions—illustrates how cultural elements shape behaviour and institutional performance (Williams, 2022; Akpa et al., 2021). Visible practices, such as digital engagement platforms and participatory budgeting tools, represent artefacts that support inclusion and transparency. Espoused values, including declared norms of ethical recognition, accountability, and equity in professional development, guide decision-making and behaviour. Underlying assumptions, such as beliefs about the social purpose of public service, influence employee commitment and the internalisation of institutional goals. The literature aligns with this framework by demonstrating that employee engagement is not merely a human resources function but a cultural phenomenon embedded within organisational norms and values, which ultimately affects service delivery and institutional credibility (Rumbi & Christian, 2021; Ortega & Acero, 2025).

Despite these insights, persistent challenges remain. Unequal access to digital engagement platforms limits participation for staff in remote or under-resourced areas. Participation mechanisms are often inconsistently implemented, resulting in variable influence of staff on decision-making processes. Recognition and reward systems may be sporadic or politically influenced, reducing the motivational impact of ethical incentives. Professional development opportunities, while increasingly digitised, may not fully reach all employees, leading to disparities in skill enhancement and career progression. These gaps indicate that while organisational culture can promote engagement, systemic inequities and resource constraints can hinder its full realisation (Sandy et al., 2024; Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024).

Policy interventions should therefore focus on embedding inclusive, transparent, and equitable practices into the cultural fabric of local government institutions. Recommendations include the establishment of comprehensive digital engagement platforms to enable participation for all employees, institutionalisation of ethical recognition programmes free from political interference, equitable access to continuous professional development using blended learning and AI-enabled personalised tracking, and formal mechanisms for participatory decision-making at multiple organisational levels. By integrating these interventions within leadership, change management, performance management, and communication practices, local governments can strengthen institutional capacity, enhance public trust, and ensure that employee engagement translates into measurable improvements in service delivery and the attainment of SDG 16 targets (Atisa et al., 2021; Amil, 2024, December).

Practical implications

The practical implications of this review on leadership practices, change management, performance management, communication patterns, and employee engagement provide actionable strategies for strengthening institutional capacity and improving public service delivery in local government. The review, grounded in Organisational Culture Theory, demonstrates that organisational culture plays a central role in shaping employee behaviour, motivation, and overall institutional effectiveness. This suggests that reforms in local government should extend beyond procedural adjustments to include cultural transformation that fosters ethical, inclusive, and accountable practices.

Leadership practices have important implications for local governments. Leaders who demonstrate transparency, accountability, and ethical conduct create a culture of trust that encourages employees to align their work with institutional goals. Practically, this requires leadership development programmes that emphasise ethical decision-making, strategic visioning, and participatory management. Local governments can strengthen leadership by instituting regular evaluations and mentoring initiatives to ensure that leaders consistently promote values that support effective and inclusive governance.

Change management is another area with significant practical relevance. Institutions that adopt flexible and adaptive approaches are better equipped to respond to technological innovations, policy reforms, and changing citizen needs. In practice, this calls for structured change management frameworks that integrate staff training, stakeholder engagement, and monitoring mechanisms. By fostering adaptability, institutions can reduce resistance to change and ensure that reforms translate into tangible improvements in service delivery.

Performance management also has critical practical implications. Aligning individual and institutional performance with broader developmental objectives ensures that employees contribute meaningfully to strategic priorities, including the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 16. This requires establishing clear, data-informed performance metrics, adopting real-time monitoring tools, and embedding continuous feedback systems. Local governments should prioritise capacity-building initiatives to equip staff with the skills necessary to interpret performance data and apply insights effectively.

Communication patterns influence transparency, inclusiveness, and organisational effectiveness. Open, multi-directional communication channels facilitate timely information sharing and collaborative decision-making. Practically, local governments can implement digital platforms, mobile applications, and hybrid communication strategies to ensure all staff and stakeholders, including marginalized groups, have access to critical information. Regular feedback mechanisms, such as surveys and digital suggestion tools, can institutionalise dialogue and build trust between employees, leadership, and citizens.

Employee engagement has direct implications for institutional performance. Motivated and empowered staff who feel a sense of purpose are more likely to contribute positively to organisational goals. Practically, local governments should design roles that emphasise social impact, involve employees in decision-making, and provide equitable access to professional development opportunities. Recognition and reward systems that promote ethical conduct, transparency, and public trust further reinforce engagement and institutional loyalty.

Recommendations for future research

Based on this review, several recommendations for future research emerge, focusing on strengthening understanding of the interplay between organisational culture and institutional performance in local government contexts. Firstly, there is a need for empirical studies that examine the causal relationship between the five identified cultural practices—leadership practices, change management, performance management, communication patterns, and employee engagement—and measurable outcomes in public service delivery. While the current literature highlights associations, longitudinal research could provide deeper insights into how these practices influence effectiveness, transparency, and inclusiveness over time.

Future research should also explore the contextual variability of these cultural practices across different governance systems, especially comparing developed and developing countries. For instance, the adoption of digital platforms for communication and performance monitoring may vary significantly depending on technological infrastructure, resource availability, and socio-political factors. Comparative studies could identify best practices and adaptive strategies that enhance institutional performance under diverse conditions.

Another area for investigation is the role of organisational culture in mediating the effects of external pressures, such as policy reforms, political changes, and socio-economic challenges. Studies could focus on how internal cultural factors enable or constrain institutional resilience, employee motivation, and citizen satisfaction. This would help to identify the mechanisms through which culture shapes the implementation and sustainability of governance reforms.

Research should also examine the intersection of equity and inclusion within employee engagement and leadership practices. There is limited evidence on how culturally informed approaches to professional development, participatory governance, and ethical recognition influence staff from underrepresented or marginalized groups. Investigating these dimensions can provide insights into promoting fairness, inclusiveness, and social equity in public institutions.

Finally, future studies could incorporate mixed-methods approaches, combining quantitative performance metrics with qualitative analyses of organisational culture, to provide a holistic understanding of institutional dynamics. This would enable researchers to capture both the measurable outcomes of cultural practices and the underlying assumptions, values, and perceptions that drive employee behaviour and organisational effectiveness.

Therefore, future research should aim to generate actionable knowledge on how organisational culture shapes local government performance, focusing on contextual variability, equity considerations, causal relationships, and methodological innovations. Such evidence can inform policy interventions and strategies to enhance inclusive, accountable, and effective public institutions aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 16.

Concrete recommendations on how organization culture would enhance performance of local government

Based on the review, several concrete recommendations emerge for stakeholders in local government to strengthen institutional capacity, enhance service delivery, and advance the principles of Sustainable Development Goal 16. These recommendations are grounded in the five thematic areas of leadership practices, change management, performance management, communication patterns, and employee engagement, with reference to practical examples highlighted in the literature.

Local government leadership should prioritise the development of ethical, transparent, and accountable practices. Stakeholders, including municipal executives and departmental heads, can adopt structured leadership development programmes that focus on ethical decision-making, participatory management, and strategic visioning. For instance, South Korea’s municipal leaders integrate staff engagement and SDG-aligned objectives into their planning and appraisal systems, linking individual contributions to social equity and sustainability outcomes (Koh et al., 2021; Park & Park, 2024). Regular mentoring initiatives and leadership evaluations can ensure consistency in modelling transparency and accountability, fostering trust within the workforce and with citizens.

Change management strategies should focus on institutional adaptability and responsiveness to technological innovations, policy reforms, and citizen needs. Local government managers and policymakers should implement structured frameworks that incorporate staff training, stakeholder consultation, and monitoring mechanisms. Estonia’s digital governance system demonstrates the success of automated service audits and cross-departmental analytics in promoting transparency and operational efficiency (Espinosa & Pino, 2025). By institutionalising such approaches, local governments can reduce resistance to change and ensure that reforms translate into improved service delivery.

Performance management interventions should align individual and institutional objectives with broader developmental and SDG goals. Local government HR managers and service directors can establish clear, data-informed performance metrics, adopt real-time monitoring platforms, and create continuous feedback loops. Kenya’s Huduma Performance Management System provides an example of effective digital tracking and mobile feedback channels, enabling timely identification of service gaps and promoting responsiveness (SECRETARIAT, 2021; Osundwa, 2024). Investing in capacity-building initiatives for staff to interpret and act on performance data will further strengthen institutional outcomes.

Communication patterns should be designed to support inclusiveness, participation, and transparency. Stakeholders, including communication officers and IT managers, should implement multi-directional channels such as digital platforms, mobile applications, and hybrid strategies to reach diverse employees and citizen groups. Rwanda’s IremboGov platform ensures rural citizens receive real-time updates on government services, while Singapore’s OneService app enables municipal departments to coordinate and broadcast timely service information (Sangwa & Mutabazi, 2025; Perdana & Mokhtar, 2024). Incorporating regular feedback mechanisms, such as surveys and AI-enabled suggestion platforms, can institutionalise dialogue and foster trust between government, staff, and citizens.

Employee engagement strategies should focus on motivation, empowerment, and professional growth. Municipal HR teams and local government policymakers should design roles that emphasise social impact, encourage participatory decision-making, and provide equitable access to professional development. Finland’s local government staff report greater satisfaction and retention when engaged in co-creating social services tailored to vulnerable populations (Boyd & Nowell, 2023; Fox et al., 2021). Similarly, Rwanda’s Imihigo performance contracts publicly recognise outstanding district teams, motivating ethical behaviour and institutional loyalty (Murasi, 2021). Recognition systems, combined with e-learning platforms and mentoring initiatives, as observed in Kenya and Norway, can promote equitable professional development and strengthen institutional capacity (Nyonje & Kidombo, 2024; Butt, 2024).

Limitations of the study

Firstly, the study relies primarily on secondary literature, case studies, and documented examples from diverse global contexts such as South Korea, Finland, Rwanda, and Kenya. While this approach provides valuable insights into best practices and successful interventions, it limits the ability to capture real-time, context-specific challenges in local government settings. The findings may not fully reflect the nuanced organisational dynamics, resource constraints, and socio-political factors that affect the implementation of leadership, change management, performance management, communication, and employee engagement practices in every context.

Secondly, the study focuses extensively on organisational culture as framed by Schein’s theory, which provides a robust conceptual lens for analysing employee behaviour and institutional performance. However, this theoretical focus may inadvertently underrepresent other critical factors influencing local government effectiveness, such as political influence, fiscal policies, legal frameworks, and citizen behaviour. By concentrating on cultural practices, the study may overlook systemic constraints or external pressures that can significantly impact the practical implementation of the five themes across different governance contexts.