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Systematic Review

Psychosocial experiences of Widows during the cleansing ritual: A scoping review Protocol of Southern African

[version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]
Pelewe Mphephu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2622-1456
1, Mashudu Muthivhi
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2418-4436
2
Pelewe Mphephu
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2622-1456
1, Mashudu Muthivhi
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2418-4436
2
PUBLISHED 26 Dec 2025
Author details Author details
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REVIEWER STATUS AWAITING PEER REVIEW

This article is included in the Research on Research, Policy & Culture gateway.

Abstract

The psychosocial experiences of widows during the death cleansing rituals have significant implications for their mental health and well-being. These rituals include medicinal body baths, isolation, deprivation of specific foods or behaviour, wearing dark clothing and shaving hair, among others. Cleansing rituals are an important cultural practice that is believed to purify the widow and help her cope with her loss. However, the rituals may also create psychological stress for widows who may feel stigmatised in their communities. To shed light on this topic, the present scoping review aims to identify and map the literature on the psychosocial experiences of widows during the cleansing ritual in Southern African countries. This review will follow the PRISMA guidelines and involve a comprehensive search of relevant databases, such as PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO, for peer-reviewed articles that focus on the experiences of widows in Africa during death cleansing rituals. The review’s findings are expected to have significant implications for policy and practice. Governments and support organisations should prioritise the development of culturally sensitive support services, including counselling and economic empowerment programs, to aid widows in Southern Africa. Furthermore, policies should be implemented to protect the rights of widows and prevent gender-based violence and discrimination.

Keywords

Culture, Death Cleansing Rituals, Psychosocial, Religion, Trauma, and Widows

Corresponding author: Pelewe Mphephu
Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.
Copyright:  © 2025 Mphephu P and Muthivhi M. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
How to cite: Mphephu P and Muthivhi M. Psychosocial experiences of Widows during the cleansing ritual: A scoping review Protocol of Southern African [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2025, 14:1456 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.173422.1) First published: 26 Dec 2025, 14:1456 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.173422.1) Latest published: 26 Dec 2025, 14:1456 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.173422.1)

Introduction

The death of a spouse is one of the most challenging life stressors, bringing emotional, social, religious, and financial consequences, especially when children are involved. In African societies, widows are expected to undergo mandatory cleansing rituals set out to reinstate spiritual balance and social order after the death of their husbands.1 These rituals, which include medicinal baths, hair shaving, wearing black or dark blue mourning attire, self-isolation, restriction of sexual intercourse, and avoidance of certain foods, are common cultural and religious traditions aimed at purifying the widow and reintegrating her into society.2,3 While these practices hold cultural significance, they may also expose widows to psychosocial distress, stigma, religious, and gender-based discrimination.

The intersection between widowhood, cultural rituals, and psychosocial well-being has not been extensively studied in the Southern African context. Although several studies, such as,4–8 have explored the cultural symbolism, human rights, and social dimensions of cleansing rituals; however, few have comprehensively examined the psychological, spiritual, and emotional consequences for widows. Therefore, this knowledge gap impedes the development of culturally sensitive interventions and policies that could lessen the hostile psychosocial effects experienced by widows.

Due to the complexity of this topic, which involves the intersection of spirituality, gender, and socio-cultural identity, a scoping review is ideal for charting existing evidence, highlighting gaps in knowledge, and synthesising findings from various disciplines. This scoping review protocol, therefore, details a systematic approach to reviewing the literature on the psychosocial experiences of widows during cleansing rituals in Southern African countries. The review aims to provide a summary of existing empirical research, highlight the contextual factors that shape widows’ experiences, and inform future psychosocial support strategies and policy frameworks that uphold dignity, human rights, and cultural values sensitivity.

Aim of the scoping review

The primary aim of this scoping review is to identify and summarise the available literature on the psychosocial experiences of widows during the death cleansing rituals in the Southern African countries, to provide a comprehensive overview of the findings, which can inform future interventions and policy initiatives to support widows in the region.

Objectives of the scoping review

  • ▪ To attain the main objective, this scoping review seeks to accomplish the following aims:

  • ▪ To identify the existing literature on the psychosocial experiences of widows during the cleansing ritual in Southern African countries.

  • ▪ To synthesise the findings of existing research to identify common themes and patterns in the psychosocial experiences of widows.

  • ▪ To assess the quality and rigour of existing research on this topic and identify gaps in the literature.

  • ▪ To provide recommendations for future research and interventions to support widows during the cleansing ritual.

Scoping review questions

The review undertakes to explore the literature on the lived experiences of African widows, guided by the PCC framework.

The primary question

The most prominent question for this review is:

“What are the psychosocial experiences of widows during the death cleansing rituals in Southern African countries, and how do these experiences vary based on factors such as age, socioeconomic status, religion, and cultural background?”

This question endeavours to capture the complexity of the psychosocial experiences of widows during this ritual, while also acknowledging the potential influence of contextual factors, such as age, socioeconomic status, and culture, on these experiences. This question was formulated based on the PCC component (Population Concept and Context), which is one of the recommended scoping review frameworks (see Table 1).

Table 1. PCC framework.

ComponentDescription
PopulationSouthern African widows who have gone through Traditional death cleansing rituals.
ConceptComprehensive overview of the death cleansing rituals, future interventions, and policy initiatives to support widows in the Southern African region.
ContextSouthern African countries, including those with a high proportion of young and elderly widows.

Potential sub-questions for the scoping review

  • ▪ What do widows report as the most common psychosocial experiences during the death cleansing rituals, and how do these experiences vary based on factors such as age, socioeconomic status, and cultural background?

  • ▪ What role do cultural beliefs and practices play in shaping the psychosocial experiences of widows during the cleansing ritual?

  • ▪ How do social support networks and community structures affect the psychosocial experiences of widows during the cleansing ritual?

  • ▪ What interventions and policy initiatives could be developed to support the psychosocial well-being of widows during the cleansing ritual and beyond?

Research design and methods

Study design

The study is designed as a scoping review, following the PRISMA-ScR method.9 This design is appropriate for examining broad and complex topics, identifying knowledge gaps, and synthesising diverse types of evidence.

Search strategy

A thorough search will be done through various multidisciplinary databases. The grey literature, including dissertations, government reports, and publications from non-governmental organisations, will also be searched. The search will involve a combination of the search terms with Boolean operators (“AND” and “OR”).

A systematic search of electronic databases will include:

  • • EBSCOhost

  • • Pubmed

  • • Scopus

  • • Sabinet

  • • JSTOR

  • • Google Scholar

Selection of sources

Inclusion criteria

  • • Studies focused on widows’ experiences during or after death cleansing rituals

  • • Studies exploring psychosocial, emotional, or cultural aspects of widowhood

  • • Peer-reviewed journal articles or grey literature

  • • English publications

  • • Publications from 2015 to 2025

Exclusion criteria

  • • Studies conducted outside Southern Africa

  • • Non-English publications

  • • Publications prior to 2015

Selection of sources

Every citation that is identified will be downloaded into EndNote. Duplicates will be removed, and titles and abstracts will be examined independently by two reviewers. Eligible studies will be reviewed in full-text format, and incongruities will be resolved by consensus and/or a third reviewer.

Data extraction

A data extraction framework will be developed to capture:

  • • Author(s), year, country

  • • Study aims, design, and methodology

  • • Population characteristics

  • • Type and description of death cleansing ritual

  • • Key psychosocial themes

  • • Findings and recommendations

  • • Identified gaps

Timeline

The review is anticipated to span three months.

Activity Timeline
1. Protocol development1 month
2. Database search and selection1 month
3. Data extraction and analysis1 month
4. Writing and finalisation of manuscript1 month

Expected results

The review expects to disclose substantial psychosocial burdens experienced by widows at cleansing rituals, which include trauma, depression, social isolation, and identity loss. Sufficient identification of resilience mechanisms will also be expected, particularly those that emerge from cultural beliefs, communities of support, and spiritual coping. Additionally, the review findings will explore research gaps in the context of gender sensitive policy development and culturally responsive counselling practices.

Ethical considerations

The review will utilise secondary data from published literature and does not require ethics clearance. Proper citation and acknowledgement of sources will be paramount. The protocol will be registered with the Open Science Framework (OSF) to promote transparency and accountability.

Conclusion

The scoping review will provide a critical understanding of the psychosocial experiences of widows engaging with death cleansing rites in Southern Africa. The review findings will serve as a basis to inform concerted actions through advocacy, academic discourse, and interventions that are culturally appropriate to promote the rights and dignity of widows after death cleansing. This review contributes to the decolonisation of psychosocial research and support, and for progressing processes towards an inclusive social justice in African contexts.

Supplementary material

No supplementary materials are included at this stage of the protocol.

Data availability

For a CC0 license:

Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication).

Or for CC-BY:

Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0).

Extended data

Mphephu, P., & Muthivhi, M. (2025, December 18). Psychosocial experiences of Widows during the cleansing ritual: A scoping review Protocol of Southern Africa. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/BQ7W8.10

The project contains the following extended data:

  • • 1. PRISMA-ScR Protocol Checklist

References

  • 1.  Mabunda YP, Ross E: Experiences of Black South African widows regarding mourning rituals following the death of their spouses: Upholding cultural practices or violating human rights? Death Stud. 2023; 47(3): 328–338. Publisher Full Text
  • 2.  Tshifhumulo R, Itsweni P: Coping strategies employed by young Vhavenda widows in Vhembe in dealing with death and bereavement. Gend. Behav. 2018; 16(2): 11705–11727.
  • 3.  Gallagher NE: Medicine and power in Tunisia, 1780-1900. Vol. 2. . Cambridge University Press; 2002.
  • 4.  Ayikukwei RM, Ngare D, Sidle JE, et al.: Social and cultural significance of the sexual cleansing ritual and its impact on HIV prevention strategies in Western Kenya. Sex. Cult. 2007; 11(3): 32–50. Publisher Full Text
  • 5.  McGuire MB: Ritual, symbolism and healing. Soc. Compass. 1987; 34(4): 365–379. Publisher Full Text
  • 6.  Lobar SL, Youngblut JM, Brooten D: Cross-cultural beliefs, ceremonies, and rituals surrounding the death of a loved one. Pediatr. Nurs. 2006; 32(1): 44–50. PubMed Abstract
  • 7.  Munala L, Mwangi E, Harris M, et al.: “I was forced into it”: The continued violation of widows from the Luo community of Kenya through sexual cleansing rituals. Front. Glob. Womens Health. 2022; 3: 942635. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
  • 8.  Nwokike C: Widowhood Cleansing Rituals in Mbaukwu: Implications for Policy Makers. Available at SSRN 3092072. 2017.
  • 9.  Sarkis-Onofre R, Catalá-López F, Aromataris E, et al.: How to properly use the PRISMA Statement. Syst. Rev. 2021; 10(1): 117. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
  • 10.  Mphephu P, Muthivhi M: Psychosocial Experiences of Widows During the Cleansing Ritual: A Scoping Review Protocol of Southern Africa. OSF. 2025. Publisher Full Text

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Mphephu P and Muthivhi M. Psychosocial experiences of Widows during the cleansing ritual: A scoping review Protocol of Southern African [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2025, 14:1456 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.173422.1)
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