Agroforestry systems in Ethiopia: A systematic review of climate change mitigation, adaptation, and sustainable land management potential

2.1 Data sources and search strategy

Data sources for the meta-analysis include prominent databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, and AGRICOLA. The search strategy employs Boolean operators (AND, OR) to refine search terms, including phrases like “Agroforestry” and “climate change mitigation,” “Agroforestry systems” and “climate adaptation,” “Carbon sequestration” and “agroforestry,” and “Resilience” and “agroforestry practices.” Additional searches will be conducted using citations from relevant articles to ensure comprehensive coverage. Results will be documented and screened systematically following PRISMA guidelines. For study selection, two independent reviewers will screen titles and abstracts for relevance, followed by a full-text review of potentially eligible studies. Disagreements will be resolved through consensus with a third reviewer. Data extraction will be conducted using a structured form to capture study characteristics, methodological details, and key outcomes related to climate change mitigation (e.g., carbon sequestration rates, soil organic carbon) and adaptation (e.g., yield stability, water regulation, and livelihood benefits). Quality assessment will involve tools like the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) to evaluate study design, data validity, and confounders, alongside funnel plots and Egger's test to assess publication bias. Data synthesis will include both quantitative and qualitative approaches, with quantitative analysis calculating effect sizes for key metrics and qualitative analysis focusing on thematic patterns in policy and socioeconomic impacts. A random-effects model will address heterogeneity in the meta-analysis, ensuring a robust synthesis of the global evidence on agroforestry’s role in climate change mitigation and adaptation.

2.1.1 Inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis focus on peer-reviewed journal articles, reports, and conference papers that examine agroforestry systems, including silvo-pastoral systems, alley cropping, home gardens, and parklands. These studies must address outcomes related to climate change mitigation, such as carbon sequestration and reduced emissions, as well as adaptation outcomes like resilience, water management, and food security. The geographical scope includes global practices with an emphasis on diverse agro-ecological zones, and only studies published from 2000 onwards will be considered. Studies with insufficient methodological details, those not addressing both mitigation and adaptation roles, and grey literature lacking peer review will be excluded.

2.1.2 Identification and screening of the studies

The process of identifying, screening, and selecting studies for the meta-analysis is illustrated in the PRISMA Flow Diagram (Extended Data, Bogale, D. 2025), which outlines each key step from the initial identification of studies through to the final selection of eligible records. Initially, a total of 151 records were identified through systematic searches in various databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, and AGRICOLA. These searches were conducted using predefined keywords related to agroforestry, climate change mitigation, and adaptation. An additional 15 records were identified from other sources, including references from previous studies, reports, and conference proceedings, contributing to the total pool of identified studies. After removing irrelevant or duplicate records, the remaining 54 studies were screened for relevance based on their titles and abstracts. At this stage, studies that did not meet the eligibility criteria focusing on the role of agroforestry in mitigating climate change impacts, enhancing climate resilience, and adaptation were excluded. Further evaluation by reading full texts and abstracts led to the exclusion of studies due to methodological issues, lack of relevant outcomes, or failure to address both mitigation and adaptation roles. This step was crucial to refine the final pool of studies. Ultimately, a total of 54 studies were reviewed for their relevance to the role of agroforestry in climate change mitigation and adaptation, specifically focusing on agroforestry systems' contribution to climate resilience, carbon sequestration, yield stability, and overall benefits in diverse agro-ecological zones flow diagram avaliable at (https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.28270775.). The final selection of studies, after rigorous screening and eligibility checks, was based on clear criteria reflecting the importance of agroforestry in addressing climate challenges across various regions and systems globally.

2.2 Data synthesis and analysis

The analysis will consist of three main components. *Descriptive Synthesis* which involve a qualitative synthesis of the key findings from the included studies, focusing on identifying recurring themes related to the effectiveness of agroforestry in climate change mitigation and adaptation across different regions. This will provide a broad understanding of the role of agroforestry in addressing climate challenges. In addition, a *Quantitative Synthesis* which conducted, where applicable, using statistical methods to assess the impact of agroforestry on various indicators such as carbon sequestration, soil fertility, and biodiversity. This approach will help quantify the effectiveness of agroforestry practices in these critical areas. Lastly, a *Geographical and Contextual Analysis* which explore regional trends and differences in agroforestry practices to identify context-specific factors that may influence the outcomes. This analysis will offer insights into how agroforestry's effectiveness varies across different agro-ecological zones and under different environmental and socio-economic conditions.

3.1 Agroforestry research in Ethiopia: A regional perspective

3.1.1 Home-garden agroforestry systems

Homegarden agroforestry systems are widespread in Southern Ethiopia, particularly in Sidama, Gedeo, and Wolaita zones, where they play a vital role in supporting food security, biodiversity, and household incomes. These systems integrate over 50 plant species per household, including Cordia africana, Millettia ferruginea, and Coffea arabica, which provide a mix of perennial crops, fruit trees, vegetables, and livestock (Abebe, 2005; Molla et al., 2014). In Sidama, traditional practices contribute to ecosystem services such as soil fertility enhancement and carbon storage (Tesfaye et al., 2010; Asfaw et al., 2013). Similarly, Gedeo home-gardens are renowned for their contribution to carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation through the integration of indigenous trees and coffee plants (Negash, 2007; Hadgu et al., 2009). In Wolaita, enset-based agroforestry systems have proven drought-resilient, ensuring food security while enhancing soil organic matter and moisture retention (Tesfaye & Woldetsadik, 2015; Dereje et al., 2021).

3.1.2 Parkland agroforestry systems

Parkland systems are a prominent feature in Southern Ethiopia, Oromia, and Tigray, where scattered trees coexist with annual crops, enhancing soil fertility and productivity. In Southern Ethiopia, species like Faidherbia albida and Acacia abyssinica have been shown to improve cereal yields through nutrient cycling and microclimatic stabilization (Bayala et al., 2014; Mekonnen et al., 2020). Oromia parklands are characterized by Acacia species that provide nitrogen fixation and fodder production, benefiting both crops and livestock (Abebe et al., 2010; Tesfaye & Moges, 2021). In Tigray, indigenous parkland systems combat land degradation and increase soil organic carbon, particularly in arid areas (Teklay et al., 2015; Gebrehiwot et al., 2013).

3.1.3 Coffee-based agroforestry systems

Coffee-based agroforestry systems are integral to Southern Ethiopia, particularly in Sidama and Gedeo zones, and parts of Oromia, where they leverage the region's suitability for Coffea arabica cultivation. These systems utilize shade trees such as Albizia gummifera and Ficus sur to enhance coffee yields and provide biodiversity benefits (Moges et al., 2019; Tadesse et al., 2018). In Gedeo, traditional coffee systems contribute to carbon sequestration and climate resilience (Negash & Starr, 2015). In Oromia, research highlights the economic and ecological benefits of coffee-based agroforestry, including improved soil fertility and water retention (Garrity et al., 2010; Tesfaye et al., 2014).

3.1.4 Enset-based agroforestry systems

Enset-based agroforestry systems are predominantly found in Sidama and Wolaita zones, where they play a crucial role in providing food security and ecological stability. In Sidama, enset is often intercropped with banana and coffee, creating a resilient system that enhances soil organic matter and carbon storage (Abebe & Sterk, 2016; Molla et al., 2014). In Wolaita, enset systems are critical for drought resilience and maintaining soil moisture, particularly under erratic rainfall patterns (Tesfaye & Woldetsadik, 2015; Dereje et al., 2021). These systems demonstrate how traditional practices can sustain productivity in challenging environmental conditions.

3.1.5 Boundary and live fence agroforestry systems

Boundary planting and live fencing are common in Tigray and Oromia, serving as vital components for land stabilization and resource management. In Tigray, live fences often include species like Carica papaya and Malus domestica, which are adapted to arid and semi-arid conditions and contribute to soil stabilization and biodiversity (Gebru et al., 2019; Desta & Solomun, 2020). Similarly, boundary planting in Oromia involves multipurpose trees such as Acacia and Eucalyptus, which provide fodder, fuel, and erosion control (Yirdaw et al., 2017; Schroth et al., 2002).

3.1.6 Alley cropping and silvo-pastoral systems

Alley cropping and silvo-pastoral systems are practiced in Oromia and dryland regions such as the Somali region, emphasizing soil fertility enhancement and integrated livestock management. In Oromia, leguminous trees in alley cropping systems improve nitrogen fixation and crop yields (Nair et al., 2018; Garrity et al., 2010). In the Somali region, silvo-pastoral systems with species like Prosopis juliflora and Acacia have proven effective in combating desertification and restoring degraded lands (Teklehaimanot, 2004; Andersson et al., 2011).

3.1.7 Agroforestry in drylands and arid zones

Dryland agroforestry systems are critical in the Somali region, Afar, and Eastern Tigray, where they mitigate desertification and enhance resilience to climatic stresses. In the Somali region, parkland systems with drought-tolerant trees improve soil fertility and support livelihoods (Schroth et al., 2002; Teklay et al., 2015). In Afar, drought-resistant species such as Prosopis and Acacia provide fodder and stabilize degraded lands (Desta & Solomun, 2020). In Eastern Tigray, agroforestry practices focus on innovative soil moisture retention and climate resilience techniques (Haile et al., 2006; Gebrehiwot et al., 2013).

The diverse agroforestry systems across Ethiopia highlight the potential for addressing food security, climate adaptation, and land restoration challenges. By integrating traditional practices with modern research, these systems can be further enhanced to maximize ecological and socioeconomic benefits ( Table 1).

3.2 Benefits of agroforestry systems in ethiopia

Agroforestry systems in Ethiopia provide two main and crucial benefits: enhancement of soil health and improvement of food security and economic resilience. These benefits are pivotal to the sustainable development of Ethiopia's agriculture and rural livelihoods, especially in areas prone to land degradation and climate variability.

3.2.1 Enhancement of soil health and environmental sustainability

Agroforestry systems in Ethiopia significantly contribute to improving soil health and environmental sustainability. This benefit is especially important in regions with degraded soils, such as the highlands and drylands, where soil fertility is a critical limiting factor.

3.2.2 Erosion control and land rehabilitation

Agroforestry systems are crucial for land restoration, particularly in regions experiencing soil erosion. In areas like Tigray, where steep slopes are prone to erosion, the practice of live fencing and terrace-based agroforestry has been found to reduce soil erosion and enhance land stability (Gebrehiwot et al., 2013; Yirdaw et al., 2017). Additionally, the use of drought-resistant trees such as Prosopis juliflora in the Somali region helps in combating desertification and rehabilitating degraded lands (Schroth et al., 2002; Haile et al., 2006). These efforts are vital for ensuring long-term agricultural productivity and the preservation of Ethiopia’s natural resources (Asfaw et al., 2013).

3.2.3 Improvement of food security and economic resilience

Agroforestry systems in Ethiopia provide significant benefits in terms of food security and economic resilience, especially in rural areas where agriculture is the primary livelihood. Agroforestry systems enhance food security by diversifying production and providing year-round access to food. In Southern Ethiopia, the integration of crops like coffee, enset, bananas, and indigenous fruit trees in home gardens ensures a reliable food supply. Enset, known for its drought resistance, is particularly important during periods of drought, providing an essential food source (Tesfaye and Woldetsadik, 2015). Additionally, the integration of vegetables, fruits, and livestock within homegardens contributes to nutritional diversity, supporting household food security (Abebe, 2005; Molla et al., 2014). Similarly, agroforestry systems in Gedeo and Sidama help buffer the effects of climate variability, ensuring consistent food availability (Negash, 2007; Tesfaye & Moges, 2021).

Agroforestry also enhances the economic resilience of smallholder farmers. Coffee-based agroforestry systems in Southern Ethiopia, especially in Sidama and Gedeo, offer farmers a source of income from coffee cultivation while also providing supplementary income from fruit, timber, and fuelwood (Moges et al., 2019). Similarly, enset-based systems in Wolaita contribute to both food security and income generation, providing products that can be sold locally (Tesfaye & Woldetsadik, 2015). Moreover, the sale of agroforestry products, including fruits, timber, and medicinal plants, improves income diversification and financial stability, reducing farmers’ vulnerability to market fluctuations and climate change impacts (Dereje et al., 2021).

Agroforestry systems also contribute to climate resilience by buffering against extreme weather events, ensuring consistent production even in adverse conditions. In Southern Ethiopia, coffee and enset systems provide stable yields during periods of drought, ensuring farmers have a reliable income stream (Moges et al., 2019; Tesfaye & Woldetsadik, 2015). The integration of drought-tolerant species like Prosopis juliflora in the Somali region further enhances economic resilience by increasing productivity in arid areas and providing a source of income from timber and fuelwood (Haile et al., 2006; Andersson et al., 2011).

The main benefits of agroforestry systems in Ethiopia, namely soil health improvement and food security and economic resilience, underscore the potential of these systems to address critical challenges such as land degradation, food insecurity, and climate variability. Through improved soil fertility, carbon sequestration, and enhanced agricultural productivity, agroforestry contributes to the long-term sustainability of Ethiopian agriculture. Moreover, by diversifying household income and improving food security, agroforestry systems enhance the resilience of rural communities to climate change and economic shocks. Continued research and the scaling up of successful agroforestry practices can ensure that Ethiopia’s agroforestry systems reach their full potential in contributing to sustainable development (Moges et al., 2019; Asfaw et al., 2013) ( Table 2).

3.3 Agroforestry and carbon sequestration in ethiopia

Agroforestry systems in Ethiopia significantly enhance soil fertility by improving nutrient cycling, increasing soil organic matter, and reducing soil erosion. In Southern Ethiopia, parkland systems integrating trees like Faidherbia albida and Acacia abyssinica have been shown to enhance soil fertility, improve cereal yields, and promote nitrogen fixation and organic matter accumulation (Bayala et al., 2014; Gebrehiwot et al., 2013). In Southern Tigray, homestead agroforestry systems boost soil organic matter and improve moisture retention, essential for arid and semi-arid farming (Gebru et al., 2019; Yirdaw et al., 2017).

Agroforestry also plays a vital role in carbon sequestration, contributing to climate change mitigation. Coffee-based agroforestry systems in south western Ethiopia store approximately 7.2 tons of CO₂ per hectare annually, with 70% in aboveground biomass and 30% in soil organic carbon (SOC) (Moges et al., 2024). Homegarden agroforestry systems in southern Ethiopia, integrating diverse tree species, contribute up to 150 tons of carbon per hectare, encompassing both biomass and SOC (Girma et al., 2024; Kindu et al., 2006). In regions like Gedeo and Sidama, high-biodiversity agroforestry systems serve as carbon sinks, capturing and storing significant carbon while supporting livelihoods. Shade trees such as Albizia gummifera and Ficus sur, integrated with coffee plants, enhance carbon storage, stabilize microclimates, and improve coffee yields (Negash, 2007; Asfaw et al., 2013; Moges et al., 2019).

Dryland agroforestry systems, such as those in Tigray, demonstrate up to a 30% increase in SOC compared to degraded lands, aided by drought-tolerant tree species (Teklehaimanot & Desta, 2023). Enset-based agroforestry systems in southern Ethiopia store approximately 85 tons of carbon per hectare, while highland indigenous systems achieve up to 120 tons per hectare, outperforming conventional agriculture in carbon sequestration (Yilma & Kebede, 2022; Nune & Mulugeta, 2022; Eshetu et al., 2021; Negash & Starr, 2015). Wolayta homegardens similarly store over 130 tons of carbon per hectare, rivaling natural forests in their ecological value (Kindu et al., 2006). Studies in the Anjeni watershed show that long-term agroforestry practices can increase SOC by up to 50% compared to monocropping systems, while semi-arid systems integrating leguminous trees further enhance carbon storage, soil fertility, and resilience to climate change (Adgo et al., 2013; Zewdie & Mohammed, 2019) ( Table 3).