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Male suicide, masculinity, emotional suppression, theology, mental health, pastoral care, vulnerability
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Makamu MC and Mudimeli Lm. The Burden of Being a Man: A Theological Exploration of Masculinity, Emotional Suppression, and the Rising Suicide Rate Among South African Men [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2026, 15:1211 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.185499.1)
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Research Article
The Burden of Being a Man: A Theological Exploration of Masculinity, Emotional Suppression, and the Rising Suicide Rate Among South African Men
[version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]
PUBLISHED 23 Jul 2026
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Abstract
Corresponding author:
Lufuluvhi maria Mudimeli
Competing interests:
No competing interests were disclosed.
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The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.
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© 2026 Makamu MC and Mudimeli Lm.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
How to cite: Makamu MC and Mudimeli Lm. The Burden of Being a Man: A Theological Exploration of Masculinity, Emotional Suppression, and the Rising Suicide Rate Among South African Men [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2026, 15:1211 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.185499.1)
First published: 23 Jul 2026, 15:1211 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.185499.1)
Latest published: 23 Jul 2026, 15:1211 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.185499.1)
Introduction
The rising phenomenon of suicide is recognised as one of the key challenges facing the twenty-first-century public health and psychology. Though more people become aware of various mental disorders and there is an increased number of psychological interventions available, the number of individuals taking their own lives still exceeds 700,000 every year worldwide (World Health Organization, 2023:8). It draws increasing interest from scholars due to its complexity and variety of psychological, social, economic, cultural, and spiritual aspects involved. Suicide is still a serious issue in South Africa. Statistics show that in South Africa, men make up the vast majority of suicide cases (Matzopoulos et al., 2015:526–527).
Traditional ideas of masculinity often center on images of strength, self-reliance, emotional control, and the ability to endure difficulties independently (Connell, 2005:68). This creates a tendency to hide emotions and avoid asking for help in the face of difficulties. Therefore, men tend to be more vulnerable to depression, addiction, social isolation, suicidal thoughts, but less willing to seek professional mental health services (Seidler et al., 2016:4).
Striving to adhere to masculine standards set by the society is often recognised as one of the factors affecting mental health of men in a negative way within different cultural contexts. At the same time, men in South Africa face additional difficulties related to high unemployment rates, poverty, inequality, family instability, and social marginalisation. Under such circumstances, men who feel like failures and see themselves unable to live up to socially imposed standards of being a provider, a leader, and a successful individual experience a growing sense of inferiority (Ratele, 2013:103). Psychological and sociological studies have made valuable contributions to the problem, while theological approaches are relatively underrepresented in research in this field.
This article aims to bridge this gap in the literature and look at the suicide crisis among South African men from the perspective of theology. The author argues that Christianity provides important tools to fight destructive masculinity standards and to promote healthier ones grounded in vulnerability, relationality, compassion, and hope. The article explores theological, biblical, and pastoral perspectives on the topic.
Theoretical framework
In this study, a theoretical foundation based on an interdisciplinary approach is used. It combines theological anthropology and masculinity theory. The fusion of these perspectives allows viewing the phenomenon under discussion in its entirety, taking into account the relationships between masculine identity, emotional repressive tendencies, and the growth of suicide rates among South African males.
Firstly, theological anthropology puts an accent on the inherent dignity, value, and purpose of a person created in the image of God (imago Dei) (Grenz, 2001:204). According to Christian theology, one’s personality does not depend on status in society, accomplishments, physical power, or autonomy, but on one’s relationship with God and membership in the community (McGrath, 2017:359). In theological terms, the cultural narrative of masculinity as the ability to be emotionally unbreakable and independent cannot be supported. On the contrary, it can be asserted that being vulnerable, dependent, and interrelational is necessary for the genuine personhood. The biblical understanding of the humanity suggests that expressing emotions and supporting each other are the features that should be considered as components of human well-being in the eyes of God.
Secondly, masculinity theory offers the understanding of how the gender identity is socially and culturally constructed. Hegemonic masculinity is characterised by the dominance of certain masculine norms, which imply that one should be strong, emotionally controlled, competitive, and independent, leaving room for expressing vulnerability and dependency (Connell, 2005:79). Men who do not correspond to the established standards might face social stigma; those who accept them usually tend to hide their psychological problems and avoid asking for help. There is evidence that conformity to the hegemonic masculine norms might result in a higher risk of having depression, substance misuse, loneliness, and suicidal behavior (Seidler et al., 2016:108).
Moreover, in the South African context, there are specificities in the construction of masculinity. There remain high expectations of male roles as providers, authority figures, and successful members of society, placing men under psychological pressure when they are unable to perform the prescribed roles (Ratele, 2013:146). In case of economic troubles and joblessness, men might experience stress, shame, and feelings of failure, resulting in a higher likelihood of mental problems and suicidal tendencies.
Thus, the interdisciplinary approach grounded in theological anthropology and masculinity theory enables consideration of the problem of conflicting, theologically oriented and socially/culturally established conceptions of masculine identity. While the norms of hegemonic masculinity usually encourage people to keep emotions hidden and rely only on themselves, the Christian theological anthropology stresses the importance of interrelation, compassion, mutuality, and the inherent value of each person.
Methodology
This research used a qualitative research design that relies on literature review. The literature review research design is suitable for investigating complex social and theological questions through critical analysis and synthesis of existing scholarly knowledge (Snyder, 2019:334–335). Literature review draws on interdisciplinary sources such as theology, psychology, psychiatry, public health, and gender literature in the exploration of the link between masculinity, emotional repression, and suicide among South African males. Academic books, scholarly journals, government reports, and theological writings were selected purposefully according to the relevance of the information contained to the study topic (Booth et al., 2016:19). Literature obtained was then analysed thematically to highlight the emerging themes and intersections of theological and mental health views (Braun and Clarke, 2006:80). This study did not involve human participants, human-derived data, human tissue, or animal subjects. Therefore, ethical approval, including a waiver, was not required.
The interdisciplinary nature of the study helps in obtaining a holistic view of male suicides by incorporating theology and psychological/sociological theories in the research.
Literature review
Understanding suicide and mental health
Suicide is a multifaceted phenomenon that can be explained by many biological, psychological, social, economic, and spiritual causes (World Health Organization, 2023:8–10). Depression, anxiety disorders, drug addiction, trauma, and loneliness are commonly recognised risk factors of suicide, according to studies conducted by mental health researchers (Joiner, 2005:17).
Modern research in suicide tends to recognise the significance of analysing broader socio-economic factors influencing suicide, rather than looking at the personal problem of an individual. Factors like unemployment, poverty, family instability, social exclusion, and economic uncertainty greatly increase one’s chances of mental discomfort and suicide, especially of men (Matzopoulos et al., 2015:307). In South African society, socio-economic disparities exacerbate the problem.
Masculinity and emotional suppression
Various studies have found that conventional standards of masculinity may be detrimental to men’s psychological wellbeing (Connell, 2005:78). In most cases, males are trained to suppress any sign of emotional fragility, avoid signs of weakness and project an appearance of toughness and self-sufficiency. For this reason, men tend to keep their emotional issues under wraps until they escalate into something much worse.
It is argued that such emotional suppression contributes to greater psychological stress and discourages individuals from seeking help at times when they face mental health problems (Seidler et al., 2016:108). Thus, men may suffer from depression, anxiety, and drug addiction, which makes them prone to suicidal thoughts and actions. The need for self-sufficiency becomes a hindrance to receiving any help.
Theology and mental health
Historically, theology has provided significant insights into suffering, despair, resilience, and hope. Theologians today see mental well-being as an appropriate topic for pastoral attention and spirituality (Louw, 2015:25). Instead of viewing mental illnesses as personal weaknesses, many theologians propose a compassionate, holistic approach to treating people that takes into account their emotional, interpersonal, and spiritual needs.
There are many examples of vulnerability from the Bible. People like David (Ps. 42), Elijah (1 Kgs 19), Jeremiah (Jer. 20:7–18), Jesus (Matt. 26:38) expressed their emotions of grief, despair, fear and suffering before God. This indicates that the tradition does not suggest any idea about the lack of vulnerability among believers but, on the contrary, confirms it (Brueggemann, 2002:53).
Theological models that focus on compassion, communion, pastoral care, and divine presence can be very helpful when talking about mental illnesses and decreasing the number of suicides. They motivate people to turn to faith communities and give them hope, community, and strength to cope with problems (Doehring, 2015:92).
Discussion
The crisis of masculine identity
South African men today often grapple with conflicting perceptions regarding the social role they are supposed to play and who they are. Conventionally, men are seen as providers, protectors, and strong figures in family settings (Ratele, 2013:146). Nevertheless, high levels of unemployment, socio-economic disparities, poverty, and changing socio-economic structure make it hard to live up to these expectations. Contemporary socio-economic conditions in South Africa have led to significant changes in the definitions of success for men, thereby leaving them uncertain about their masculinity (Morrell et al., 2012:15).
The conflict between perception and reality can leave men feeling inadequate, ashamed, frustrated, and hopeless. Studies show that in case an individual identifies himself as not conforming to culturally defined ideas of masculinity, he is more likely to have low self-esteem and feel distressed (Connell, 2005:83). When such feelings are coupled with social expectations not to reveal their vulnerabilities, they become prone to depression and suicide (Seidler et al., 2016:109).
Emotional suppression and spiritual isolation
In some instances, emotional repression might affect not just the individual psychologically but even spiritually. Men struggling with depression, anxiety, and emotional challenges might consider themselves weak, unworthy of God’s grace, or lacking faith (Louw, 2015:33). This is detrimental since it might reinforce the sense of guilt and prevent them from getting help.
Another adverse consequence of such thinking is that it may lead to spiritual isolation and detachment from religious institutions. Instead of discussing what they are going through with those close to them, men tend to keep it all inside and try to overcome it alone. Social isolation has been proven to be one of the factors that contribute to poor mental health and suicidal ideation (Joiner, 2005:22). Thus, the lack of supportive relations among family members, friends, and within religious circles might worsen emotions and vulnerability to self-harming.
Reimagining masculinity through theology
Christian theology presents an alternative vision of manhood grounded in such characteristics as vulnerability, compassion, humility, and relationality. Being vulnerable and compassionate with feelings of suffering and agony, Jesus moves away from the traditional ideas about strength through his openness in expressing these feelings as well as dependence on God (Matt. 26:38; John 11:35). In other words, Jesus shows that emotional openness is not inconsistent with being strong and even should be considered the indicator of human maturity (Nouwen, 1992:74).
This understanding of human nature is extended to the idea that the human being was made in the image of God and is supposed to enter the relationship both with God and others (Grenz, 2001:205). Thus, the condition of flourishing is not independence but mutual care and community. This idea contradicts the traditional view of manhood as emotionally invulnerable status and makes it necessary for men to be dependent without regarding this feature as the sign of weakness. Christian theology can greatly contribute to the psychological well-being of South African men.
Findings and recommendations
Findings
Christian theology implies a different interpretation of masculinity, one that includes vulnerability, compassion, humility, and relationality. By his very life and ministry, Jesus Christ steps out of conventional perceptions about strength and power, demonstrating openness towards emotions like grief, compassion, agony, and dependency on God (Matthew 26:38; John 11:35). The case of Jesus Christ demonstrates that emotional openness does not contradict strength and can be seen as one of the markers of human maturity (Nouwen, 1992:74).
Human anthropology is further developed to emphasise that human beings were made in God’s image and must establish relationships with God and with other people (Grenz, 2001:205). Therefore, the concept of flourishing does not include total self-sufficiency but care for others, community, and interdependency. This idea contradicts the traditional perception of masculinity as a state of emotional invulnerability and makes men feel their dependency without considering it to be a weakness. Christian theology can provide significant support in fostering the psychological well-being of South African men.
Recommendations
For churches
Churches need to provide an environment where men feel comfortable in sharing their problems related to mental issues without any fear of being stigmatised or ridiculed. It is essential that the programs for mental health awareness, support groups, and counseling activities be included in the church setting (Doehring 2015:93).
For theological institutions
Mental health education should be included in ministerial training at seminaries and theological colleges. This is because future ministers need to be able to identify early signs of depression and suicidal tendencies to give proper pastoral care or refer such people to mental health experts (Louw 2015:46).
For mental health professionals
Mental health workers should recognise the spiritual aspect of mental health and, when necessary, work with faith-based organisations to assist people suffering from psychological distress. This cross-disciplinary partnership could result in a more holistic approach to mental health care (Koenig, 2012:119).
For policy makers
To combat suicides, it is necessary that government departments and NGOs develop gender-specific prevention programs to tackle the unique problems experienced by the male gender. The prevention programs developed need to specifically target the stigma associated with such situations along with making people aware about mental well-being and services (World Health Organization, 2023:35–39).
For future research
Additional empirical research is necessary for examining the connection between theology, masculinity, and suicide in different South African populations. Future research can be focused on exploring the efficiency of religion-oriented methods of helping men who are experiencing psychological problems.
Conclusion
Suicide rates among South African males continue to be a key social, psychological, and theological issue. In light of this research, it has become clear that the way masculinity is constructed leads to emotional inhibition, independence, and resistance to asking for help, which increases the risks of psychological problems and suicides. Moreover, socio-economic issues like joblessness, poverty, and social instability exacerbate the psychological struggle of men. Furthermore, the research reveals that theological sources, in particular the ones discussing human dignity, vulnerability, lamentation, community, and hope, offer an alternative perspective on masculinity and mental health issues. Lastly, the study finds that faith communities hold great, although largely untapped, potential for helping men in their struggle against suicide and depression. Thus, the paper shows that the problem of suicide among South African men can be effectively addressed with a collaboration of different disciplines, in particular theology and mental health studies. Such an approach may result in the formation of healthy ideas about masculinity and suicide prevention measures in South Africa.
Based on theological anthropology and masculinity theory, the research shows that there is a need to construct a different kind of masculinity through Christian theology, where dignity, vulnerability, relationality, and hope become its characteristics (Grenz, 2001:205). Jesus’ life and work provide a counter-example for toxic masculine norms, as they advocate compassion, emotional sincerity, and dependence on God. Therefore, churches and faith-based communities should actively participate in creating an environment for mental wellbeing and suicide prevention among men suffering from emotional disorders.
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how to cite this article
Makamu MC and Mudimeli Lm. The Burden of Being a Man: A Theological Exploration of Masculinity, Emotional Suppression, and the Rising Suicide Rate Among South African Men [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2026, 15:1211 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.185499.1)
NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
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