How Participatory Communication Converts Social Capital into Conservation: An Empirical Study from Karimunjawa, Indonesia

Integrating participatory communication and gender-responsive approaches

The framework integrates participatory communication with gender-responsive capacity development for marine governance, fostering inclusive, co-designed training and decision-making spaces, especially for marginalized groups. Drawing on Habermas’s communicative rationality and Freire’s dialogic learning, it emphasizes safe, egalitarian dialogue and mutual learning through workshops, participatory appraisal, and peer exchanges. These approaches enhance social learning, trust, and collective capacity—essential for managing shared marine resources in archipelagic settings. Gender-responsive strategies remove barriers such as childcare or scheduling constraints and recognize women’s unique knowledge of coastal resources, embedding gender analysis into governance and ensuring equitable participation beyond generic community involvement.

The justification for this inclusivity is twofold. Beyond being an issue of social justice, it is a matter of institutional effectiveness. Research consistently shows that including women introduces different knowledge, leadership styles, and a broader focus on community well-being, which enhances problem-solving capabilities. As De La Torre-Castro⁴¹ contend, “including all genders in the management process is needed and the inclusion itself can generate new ways to solve problems”. This perspective challenges a simplistic view of communication as mere information transmission, engaging with critical scholarship on how meaning and power are constructed and contested. Whose voices are amplified and whose are silenced is not incidental but central to governance outcomes.

This framework fosters equitable dialogue by training facilitators to address power imbalances using methods such as breakout groups and anonymous feedback. Integrating participatory communication with gender-responsive facilitation empowers marginalized voices and gradually shifts collective norms and perceptions.⁴²

Effective governance must fit local contexts, as cultural norms around gender, authority, and communication shape participation and knowledge sharing in many coastal communities, expectations limiting women’s public roles constrain involvement, but context-sensitive measures such as facilitated dialogues and flexible scheduling can improve participation.

Governance implementation is shaped by sociopolitical, geographic, and environmental contexts. In Karimunjawa National Park, co-management requires balancing power among leaders and officials, with inclusive forums enhancing representation, fairness, compliance, and ecological outcomes. Island isolation, high transport costs, limited infrastructure, and resource dependence favor in-person, decentralized engagement like village workshops. Context mapping ensures interventions reflect local realities, strengthening legitimacy, participation, and long-term sustainability.

Enabling factors for inclusive governance

Achieving participatory and gender-inclusive marine governance depends on aligned institutional, normative, and communicative conditions. Supportive institutions—such as cooperatives and women’s associations provide representation and continuity, as seen in Madagascar’s fisherwomen’s network and the Coral Triangle Initiative’s Women Leaders Forum, which expanded women’s policy engagement. Partnerships with NGOs and universities further strengthen technical capacity and access to resources. Equally vital are social norms that promote collaboration and shared responsibility, which can be fostered through strategic communication using local role models and trusted voices. As communities witness tangible benefits from cooperation, acceptance of gender-equitable participation grows.

Equitable benefit-sharing is central to legitimacy. In places like Karimunjawa, community co-ownership of tourism or shared park revenues connects conservation with real livelihood gains; when decisions and outcomes are seen as fair, inclusion gains economic value and lasting support. Transparent communication through accessible language, local translation, and timely updates broadens participation and accountability, while trust and skilled facilitation help manage conflict and foster learning. Collectively, these factors transform formal inclusion into genuine influence, reinforcing progress toward resilient, gender-inclusive marine governance ( Figure 1).

Figure 1. Conceptual model of inclusive marine governance capacity development.

The model argues that inclusive marine governance arises when participatory communication and gender-responsive strategies are integrated into capacity development and adapted to local contexts within supportive environments. It connects (i) external conditions, (ii) core processes, and (iii) resulting outcomes, emphasizing that local norms, sociopolitical structures, geography, institutions, equitable benefit-sharing, and transparent communication together shape intervention design and effectiveness.

At the model’s core is the integration of participatory communication and gender-inclusive practices within all capacity-building activities. Dialogic forums, representative decision spaces, and inclusive training promote both technical and social learning. These processes enhance technical skills and collective capacities for decision making, conflict resolution, and shared implementation. The outcomes include fairer participation, stronger community influence on policy, and more effective co-management of marine resources. A reinforcing feedback loop ensures that equitable benefit-sharing and transparency strengthen social norms trust, reciprocity, and gender equity further supporting future collective action.

Applied to Karimunjawa, the model follows a clear sequence: first, map local context, including cultural norms, institutions, and gendered roles; next, conduct facilitated dialogues and capacity-building that amplify women’s voices and local knowledge through co-designed rules and mixed-gender teams; then, secure tangible benefits—improved livelihoods, access, and shared authority—to foster trust and legitimacy; finally, build enduring partnerships among communities, NGOs, and universities to sustain learning, adaptation, and resource stewardship, ensuring all members have a voice and stake in collective management.

The framework is built on clear definitions. Inclusive marine governance expands participation and distributes benefits across diverse groups. Participatory communication involves dialogic processes and social learning to balance power and knowledge among stakeholders. A gender and intersectionality lens addresses barriers and acknowledges distinct contributions of women and other groups. Local context is a primary determinant of success, requiring cultural and political fit in interventions. Enabling factors supportive institutions, fair benefit-sharing, and transparent communication provide the structural support for inclusive processes. Together, these components promote marine governance that is ecologically effective and socially just.

Research design

This study adopts a conceptual framework based on Eade,⁴³ which conceives community capacity building as three interrelated dimensions: (a) human resources, (b) institutional/organizational support, and (c) network systems ( Table 1). Fieldwork was conducted in the Karimunjawa Islands, Indonesia, from June to July 2025. The site was selected for its ecological significance as a key habitat for sandfish sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) and for the community’s pronounced economic dependence on sea cucumber fisheries. Eligible respondents were men and women from small-scale fishing communities in the productive age range (15–64 years) who were currently or previously engaged in harvesting sandfish sea cucumbers or other echinoderms. Individuals not directly involved in coastal or marine-related occupations were excluded.

Data collection

The questionnaire evaluated individual and group experiences in community capacity development, gender participation, and participatory communication in marine conservation across 234 items covering domains like human capital, participation, benefits, culture, regulation, and rules of the game. Trained local enumerators, familiar with Karimunjawa fisheries, collected data following protocols on informed consent, confidentiality, and neutral interviewing, ensuring cultural sensitivity and accurate responses aligned with community practice.

Thirteen key informants, including fishery unit heads, community leaders (Javanese, Bugis, Madurese), female fishers, NGO facilitators, and local authorities, were interviewed for their extensive knowledge and experience in local fisheries. Ethical approval was obtained, informed consent secured, and instruments authorized under Decree No. 060/KE.01/SK/4/2022 by the Ethics Commission Chair (April 20, 2022).

Data analysis

Survey data were cleaned, coded, and analyzed via cross-tabulations by gender and site (Karimunjawa Islands). In-depth interviews were transcribed and thematically coded following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) guidelines to identify recurring patterns, culturally embedded narratives, and site-specific challenges in gender inclusion and participatory communication.⁴⁴ Findings were triangulated across methods to enhance credibility. Quantitative analyses used structural equation modeling in SmartPLS, with indicators from the framework of Eade⁴³ scored on a four-point scale. Qualitative analysis guided interpretation quantitative evidence to assess links between capacity development, gender participation, participatory communication, and inclusive marine governance.

Limitation

Content validity was confirmed by three experts in marine policy, gender, and social science, including a gender professor from Bogor Agricultural Institute and fisheries socio-economics researchers from the National Research and Innovation Agency.

Construct validity was ensured by aligning indicators with the study’s theoretical foundations, specifically Eade’s (1998)⁴³ capacity-development dimensions and the participatory governance elements described by Jentoft and Chuenpagdee.⁴⁵

A pilot test involving 30 respondents from non-sample villages (Nyamuk Village) was conducted to refine item clarity and logic. Feedback led to minor wording adjustments without major revisions. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, and items scoring below 0.70 were revised before full implementation.

Methodological triangulation integrated qualitative interviews and quantitative surveys to strengthen credibility. Pilot testing showed general comprehension, but several items were revised for clarity, plain language, and gender inclusivity before full deployment.

Model validation and structural results

All items met reliability criteria (outer loadings >0.50; Table 2). Three constructs achieved AVE >0.50 ( Table 3), supporting convergent validity, while constructs below this threshold still showed adequate loadings and internal consistency (Cronbach’s α >0.70; composite reliability >0.70; Tables 4–5). Due to their theoretical importance, these constructs were retained in the structural model, though path interpretations are made cautiously, and future refinement such as revising or removing weaker indicators is recommended.

Reliability diagnostics from SmartPLS indicate strong internal consistency overall: Table 4 reports Cronbach’s α > 0.70 for all constructs, and Table 5 shows composite reliability > 0.70 across the board. These results justify proceeding to the structural analysis. Structural model performance is summarized in Table 6. Coefficients of determination (R²) indicate that the model explains a moderate proportion of variance in Y1 (R² = 0.657) and Y2 (R² = 0.678), a substantial proportion in Y3 (R² = 0.751), and a weak proportion in Y4 (R² = 0.315) (using common PLS benchmarks). The corresponding unexplained variance shares are 34.3%, 32.2%, 24.9%, and 68.5%, respectively (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. PLS algorithm.

Predictive relevance statistics corroborate these findings. Figure 3 and Table 7 report Q² > 0 for Y1–Y4, indicating predictive relevance for all endogenous constructs. Hypothesis tests are presented in Table 8. There were significant positive effects of X1 → Y1 (p < 0.001), X1 → Y2 (p = 0.005), and X1 → Y3 (p < 0.001) ( Table 9). In addition, X3 → Y3 was significant and positive (p = 0.005), and Y3 → Y4 was significant and positive (p < 0.001), implying a significant indirect pathway from X3 to Y4 via Y3. Collectively, these results support the proposed relationships and the model’s explanatory and predictive capacity.

Figure 3. Model of community development in fisheries communities in supporting the conservation of sand sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) resources.

Toward inclusive marine governance: empirical evidence from Karimunjawa

Social capital variables in the community development framework

Structural equation modeling shows that the human-resources dimension aligns with social capital (X1), supporting control (Y1), benefits (Y2), and community culture (Y3).^46,47 Fourteen of fifteen indicators attitude, cooperation, social network, structural, relational, altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, civic virtue, courtesy, harmony, reliability, concern, and reciprocity capture how Karimunjawa fishers leverage social capital to sustain marine resources, including sandfish sea cucumbers (Holothuria scabra).

The study site is a small-scale fisheries community (ages 15–62) of Javanese, Madurese, Bugis, and Mandarese. Fishing mostly uses vessels ≤5 GT with simple gear. Seaweed cultivation occurs via Ministry training and investor collaborations. Processing, mainly by fishers’ wives, is limited—sea cucumber processing depends on market demand, while other activities (e.g., anchovy drying) are intermittent. Local sales are coordinated among fishers, cultivators, and processors, with sub-district collectors aggregating products for external markets.

Daily social interactions in Karimunjawa reflect strong tolerance and mutual support. Interethnic exchanges are fluid, with residents often switching languages, while collective help arises naturally during illness or family events. Shared efforts—like beach clean-ups and peer learning in seaweed farming—demonstrate cooperation, reciprocity, civic engagement, and respect, aligning closely with the social-capital indicators validated in the measurement model.

Community development focuses on fostering collective problem-solving, encompassing both the process of enhancing capacity to act together and the outcome of sustained collective action that improves physical, environmental, cultural, social, political, or economic conditions.⁴⁸

Community-based management applies this approach by promoting human-centered development and giving communities direct responsibility for local resource management. Planning generally follows stages of problem identification, goal setting, action, and evaluation. Strategies may focus on economic growth, social welfare, shared responsibility through self-help and external support, or a holistic combination of ethical and practical actions.

In Karimunjawa, fisheries communication mainly occurs within business groups at the hamlet and village levels. Although occasional tensions often arise over policies seen as favoring certain hamlets, they are usually resolved through norms of mutual respect, with competition reflecting local loyalties rather than serious division. Overall, these dynamics indicate that social capital, reflected in the fourteen validated indicators, serves as a practical foundation for community development; when directed through structured, participatory processes, it can strengthen legitimacy, participation, and compliance to support sea cucumber recovery and wider marine conservation efforts.

Variable participation in the community development framework

Community development goals can be specific rather than multi-purpose. Drawing on Long’s research as cited by Buye,⁴⁹ approaches illustrate this range: a community approach, problem-solving, experimental innovation, power-conflict mobilization, natural-resource management, and urban environmental improvement. Building on this idea of tailored pathways, Coote as cited in Beck and Purcell⁵⁰ proposes three normative objectives that orient community development toward transformational ends: social justice (equal opportunities and meaningful participation), environmental sustainability (living within ecological limits across generations), and a more equal distribution of power (formal and informal means for people to influence decisions at multiple scales).

Structural equation modeling in this study shows that participation (X3) indirectly influences the network system (Y4). Participation encompasses conservation, private and group enterprises, and household economic activities, while the network system includes infrastructure, resource potential, finance access, markets, production capacity, and cooperation. These results suggest that broader community engagement enhances connections to resources and partners, thereby strengthening network capacity.

In the Karimunjawa Islands, fishing communities actively engage in marine conservation, such as mangrove and coral reef management, in collaboration with the National Park Agency. These efforts reflect awareness that healthy habitats sustain local fisheries, including sandfish. Environmental care is also evident in the adoption of selective, low-impact fishing gear. Livelihoods, however, remain fluid; when new markets emerge, communities diversify into small enterprises like construction, furniture, and fish processing. Group-based organization supports this diversification, with many households combining fishing, seaweed farming, and processing. Through these networks, communities access infrastructure, credit, and wider markets via investor partnerships. While these connections build capacity and economic opportunity, they also increase pressure on fish stocks particularly sandfish highlighting the need to balance market integration with conservation safeguards.

Conceptually, community development is best understood as both process and outcome. Phillips and Pittman⁴⁸ define it as developing the ability to act collectively (process) and realizing improvements across community domains—physical, environmental, cultural, social, political, and economic—through sustained collective action (outcome). Planning typically proceeds through problem presentation and analysis, goal setting, action planning, implementation, and evaluation. Strategy choice can vary with context. Pangandaran⁵¹ highlights models that (a) build skills and independence to address locally identified problems, (b) mobilize community action to strengthen the capabilities of marginalized groups, and (c) pursue gender-focused efforts to redress inequalities between women and men. Classic typologies echo this range: Rothman’s three models—locality development, social planning, and social action—respectively emphasize participatory place-based improvement, data-informed policy and program design, and organized efforts to secure structural justice.⁵²

Participation in Karimunjawa fisheries serves not merely as a procedural ideal but as a capacity-building mechanism, enhancing networks through improved infrastructure, finance, market linkages, and cooperative production; achieving Coote’s objectives of justice, sustainability, and redistributed power requires coupling participation with safeguards against over-extraction and gender-responsive designs that ensure equitable benefits and decision-making.

The role of gender in current fisheries community activities

In the Karimunjawa community, fisheries practices are shaped by household income needs and limited awareness of sandfish sea cucumber stewardship. Harvesting, mainly by fisherwomen with tacit household support, treats sea cucumbers as one of several interchangeable income sources, reflecting weak recognition of ecological risk. Gender participation is visible in production and supply chains, yet women remain underrepresented in decision making, constraining the community’s capacity to align short-term livelihoods with long-term conservation goals.

Strengthening human resources is crucial, as skills in stewardship, rights literacy, negotiation, and data use enhance community control, bargaining power, and policy engagement, while clear program benefits and supportive organizational culture align incentives with conservation outcomes, fostering fishing practices that sustain livelihoods and promote Holothuria scabra recovery.