Recent advances in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Kai-Feng Xu; Xinlun Tian; Jay H Ryu

doi:10.12688/f1000research.14564.1

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Review

Recent advances in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis

[version 1; peer review: 4 approved]

Kai-Feng Xu¹, Xinlun Tian¹, Jay H Ryu ²

PUBLISHED 18 Jun 2018

Author details Author details

¹ Department of Respiratory Medicine, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
² Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA

Kai-Feng Xu
Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project Administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Xinlun Tian
Roles: Conceptualization, Project Administration, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Jay H Ryu
Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project Administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

OPEN PEER REVIEW

REVIEWER STATUS

Abstract

Lymphangioleiomyomatosis is a rare disorder that predominantly affects women and is characterized by progressive cystic changes in the lung, leading to gradually worsening shortness of breath and lung function impairment. Pleural complications such as pneumothorax and chylothorax commonly occur in these patients. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis can occur as a form of lung involvement in tuberous sclerosis complex or as a sporadic form (without tuberous sclerosis complex). Etiology in both forms of this disease centers on mutations in the tuberous sclerosis genes. Advances in our understanding of the regulatory role of tuberous sclerosis gene products (hamartin/tuberin) in the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway have led to the identification of effective therapy (mTOR inhibitors) for a rare disorder, once considered uniformly fatal. Here, we summarize the evolution of current concepts regarding lymphangioleiomyomatosis with an emphasis on recent advances and unresolved issues.

Keywords

Angiomyolipoma, Chylothorax, Lung transplantation, Lymphangioleiomyomatosis, Pneumothorax, Pulmonary rehabilitation, Rapamycin, Sirolimus, Tuberous sclerosis complex

Corresponding author: Jay H Ryu

Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Grant information: The work of K-FX and XT was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (81570061), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFC0901502), the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Project (Z151100003915126), and the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) Initiative for Innovative Medicine (2017-12M-2-001).

Copyright: © 2018 Xu KF et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

How to cite: Xu KF, Tian X and Ryu JH. Recent advances in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis [version 1; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2018, 7(F1000 Faculty Rev):758 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.14564.1) First published: 18 Jun 2018, 7(F1000 Faculty Rev):758 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.14564.1) Latest published: 18 Jun 2018, 7(F1000 Faculty Rev):758 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.14564.1)

Introduction

Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) is a rare disease that occurs primarily in women and manifests as diffuse cystic changes in the lung^1,2. The presenting symptoms may include dyspnea or chest pain (often related to spontaneous pneumothorax) or both^3,4. Some patients may present for evaluation of imaging abnormalities, including cystic lung disease, pleural effusion, or renal tumor (associated renal angiomyolipomas, or AML) in the absence of symptoms.

LAM can be sporadic or occur in patients with a heritable disorder, tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC), and had been considered a lethal disorder with no effective therapy. In 2010, the European Respiratory Society (ERS) published the first clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and management of LAM³. In 2011, sirolimus (rapamycin) therapy was demonstrated to stabilize lung function in patients with LAM⁵. Currently, LAM is considered a low-grade, metastasizing neoplasm¹. Advances in our understanding of the disease process in recent years have profoundly changed the management of LAM and the prognosis for affected patients. Table 1 outlines the major events that have influenced clinical practice in recent years^3,5–11. In this review, we aim to summarize the recent evolution of concepts concerning the state-of-the-art management of LAM.

Table 1. Recent landmark events in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis.

Year	Events
2008	Sirolimus is demonstrated to induce regression of TSC- or sporadic LAM-associated renal angiomyolipomas and improve spirometric measurements in some patients with LAM⁶.
2010	The European Respiratory Society publishes the first clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and management of LAM³.
2011	Clinical trial demonstrates the efficacy and safety of sirolimus therapy in patients with sporadic and TSC-associated LAM⁵.
2013	Updated international consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of TSC is published^7,8.
2014	Sirolimus is approved for LAM treatment in Japan.
2015	Sirolimus is approved for LAM treatment in the USA.
2015	LAM is listed in the 2015 World Health Organization Classification of Lung Tumors⁹.
2016	ATS/JRS LAM clinical practice guidelines are published¹⁰.
2017	ATS/JRS LAM expanded clinical practice guidelines are published¹¹.

ATS, American Thoracic Society; JRS, Japanese Respiratory Society; LAM, lymphangioleiomyomatosis; TSC, tuberous sclerosis complex.

Sirolimus therapy for lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Sirolimus, or rapamycin, inhibits the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway and currently plays a central role in the treatment of LAM. The molecular pathogenesis of LAM is based on TSC2 gene mutations and their effect on the mTOR pathway, which is normally controlled by the protein complex (hamartin/tuberin) encoded by TSC1 and TSC2 genes, respectively^12,13. When the TSC2 or TSC1 gene is mutated, the resulting protein complex fails in its role as an upstream negative regulator of mTOR and results in its constitutive activation¹⁴. This mTOR activation, in turn, results in unregulated cell growth.

Based on the discovery of TSC2 mutation in patients with sporadic LAM and the mechanism of action of sirolimus, clinical trials were initiated assessing the efficacy of sirolimus therapy for not only TSC-related tumors but also LAM. In 2008, Bissler et al. published the first clinical trial on the use of sirolimus for renal AMLs in patients with TSC as well as sporadic LAM⁶. In the 12-month treatment period, sirolimus significantly reduced the size of AMLs. The pulmonary function measurements for the 11 LAM patients in the study improved as well. Subsequently, a randomized placebo-controlled study of sirolimus for LAM—Multicenter International Lymphangioleiomyomatosis Efficacy of Sirolimus (MILES) study—enrolled 89 patients⁵. The forced expiratory volume at 1 second (FEV₁) increased or remained stable during 12 months of treatment. The level of serum vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VEGF-D), a biomarker reflecting disease activity, decreased significantly during treatment with sirolimus.

Sirolimus has now been widely administered to patients with LAM. Multiple additional clinical studies on the use of sirolimus for LAM have been published, although the sample sizes of the studies were relatively small because of the rarity of this disease¹⁵. Overall, sirolimus therapy was demonstrated to stabilize lung function, improve quality of life, reduce the size of chylothorax, decrease the volume of renal AMLs, and decrease serum VEGF-D level^16–23.

Indications for sirolimus therapy in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Diffuse cystic lung disease can be seen in disorders other than LAM, and the differential diagnosis of diffuse cystic lung disease has been reviewed elsewhere^2,24. The diagnosis of LAM is classified as “definite”, “probable”, or “possible” according to the criteria outlined in the 2010 ERS guidelines³. The diagnostic criteria for definite LAM were updated recently in the American Thoracic Society/Japanese Respiratory Society (ATS/JRS) guidelines published in 2017. Accordingly, a definite diagnosis of LAM can be established when a patient has compatible clinical and radiological findings—diffuse cystic lung disease depicted on high-resolution computed tomography (CT) of the chest—combined with one of the following features: presence of TSC, renal AMLs, chylothorax, lymphangioleiomyomas, elevated serum VEGF-D level, presence of LAM cells demonstrated in effusions or lymph nodes, or histopathological confirmation by biopsy of lung or extrapulmonary lesion. Patients with compatible clinical and radiological features can be diagnosed with “probable” LAM in the absence of additional diagnostic criteria.

Sirolimus therapy is currently recommended for patients with a definite diagnosis of LAM who manifest an abnormal (FEV₁ of less than 70% of the predicted value) or declining pulmonary function¹⁰. Other indications for the use of sirolimus in patients with LAM may include symptomatic chylothorax or chylous ascites¹⁰, renal AMLs⁶, retroperitoneal or pelvic lymphangioleiomyomas, and other TSC-related lesions¹⁵.

Optimal dosage of sirolimus therapy in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Although optimal dosage of sirolimus for LAM has not been defined, the currently favored dosage for LAM is 1–2 mg per day (“low dose”) to achieve a serum trough level of around 5 ng/mL, which is on the lower end of the original target serum trough level in the MILES trial (that is, between 5 and 15 ng/mL). In a retrospective analysis of 98 patients with LAM treated with this dosing regimen at Peking Union Medical College Hospital, the majority of patients achieved a trough serum level of 5–10 ng/mL while about 20% of patients attained a serum trough level of less than 5 ng/mL¹⁶. A study involving 15 patients in Japan suggested that an even lower dosing regimen that achieves a serum trough level of less than 5 ng/mL may provide treatment effects equivalent to those of higher dosing regimens²⁵. Another study reported no association between the rate of change in FEV₁ and serum sirolimus level²³.

We suggest monitoring patients with LAM for progression of the disease while on sirolimus therapy as well as assessing for adverse drug-related effects. Although minimal effective dosage is preferred, higher doses of sirolimus may be needed in patients who continue to manifest disease progression. Table 2 outlines the suggested monitoring schedule for LAM patients on sirolimus therapy²⁶.

Table 2. Suggested schedule of monitoring assessments for lymphangioleiomyomatosis patients on sirolimus therapy.

Monitoring assessments	Prior to therapy	Initial 3 months	Every 6–12 months	In case of clinical worsening
Clinical	✓	✓	✓	✓
Pulse oximetry	✓	✓	✓	✓
Six-minute walking distance (6MWD)	✓		✓	✓
St George Respiratory Questionnaire	✓		✓	✓
Pulmonary function test	✓		✓	✓
Serum vascular endothelial growth factor-D (VEGF-D) level	✓		✓^a	✓^a
High-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) of chest	✓		✓^b	✓^a
Computed tomography/magnetic resonance imaging of abdomen and pelvis	✓		✓^c	✓^c
Sirolimus concentration		✓^d	✓	✓
Sirolimus safety^e		✓	✓	✓

a Optional depending on the clinical requirements.

b HRCT of the chest can be assessed every 12 months or as clinically indicated.

c If abnormal at baseline or prior to therapy and as clinically indicated.

d The sirolimus dosage should be adjusted during the initial 3 months of treatment, if needed, and when necessary (for example, change in patient’s other medications that may influence serum sirolimus level).

e Including symptoms (rash, oral ulcer, menses, and so on) and laboratory investigations (lipid panel and so on).

Modified from Xu and Lo²⁶.

Safety of sirolimus therapy in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Sirolimus is generally well tolerated in patients with LAM. Common side effects of sirolimus therapy in LAM include acne-like rash, oral ulcer, irregular menses, peripheral edema, diarrhea, hyperlipidemia, and liver enzyme elevations. Sirolimus-associated pneumonitis is rare but can be severe²¹. Pulmonary infections were not increased in patients with LAM treated with sirolimus⁵. The long-term safety profile of sirolimus therapy has not yet been fully defined.

Sirolimus treatment failure

Not all patients with LAM respond to sirolimus therapy. Currently, there is no consensus regarding the definition of treatment failure in LAM. Additionally, alternative therapeutic intervention for such cases is lacking. A phase I trial has been conducted using the combination of sirolimus and hydroxychloroquine (an autophagy inhibitor) and demonstrated the safety of this combination therapy²⁷. A phase II study of aromatase inhibitor, letrozole, showed this mode of therapy to be safe and well tolerated but, owing in part to under-enrollment of study participants, failed to show efficacy²⁸. Future studies are needed to clarify the definition of sirolimus treatment failure, underlying mechanisms, and optimal management strategies for affected patients.

Pulmonary rehabilitation

Pulmonary rehabilitation is a standard practice for patients with chronic lung diseases²⁹. It can reduce dyspnea, increase exercise capacity, and improve quality of life. A controlled clinical trial consisting of 40 patients with LAM examined the effects of pulmonary rehabilitation³⁰. The program included twice-weekly 1-hour sessions of aerobic exercise on a treadmill and muscle strength training along with education for a period of 3 months. The pulmonary rehabilitation group exhibited improved exercise endurance time, quality of life, 6-minute walking distance, and peak oxygen consumption. No cases of pneumothorax or other serious events occurred during exercise. These results suggest that a pulmonary rehabilitation program should be employed in dyspneic patients with LAM. A study of yoga therapy in patients with LAM is ongoing in China (ChiCTR-OON-17012748, http://www.chictr.org.cn/showproj.aspx?proj=21738).

Lung transplantation

Lung transplantation is a treatment option for patients with advanced LAM³. Similar experiences have been reported from multiple countries on the use of lung transplantation in LAM^31–36. The ERS guidelines recommended that patients with LAM be considered for lung transplantation when they reach a New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class of III or IV with severely impaired lung function and exercise capacity³. Prior pleurodesis and thoracic surgical procedures are associated with higher rates of bleeding and re-exploration but are not contraindications to lung transplantation^11,37. The actuarial survival of lung transplant recipients with LAM is 65% at 5 years³.

Sirolimus is a potent immunosuppressant and is commonly used in solid organ transplant recipients to prevent organ rejection. There have been reports of impaired wound healing and wound dehiscence associated with sirolimus therapy^38–40. Given these concerns, questions have arisen regarding whether sirolimus therapy should be discontinued when patients with LAM are on a waiting list for lung transplantation and the safety of including sirolimus in the post-transplant immunosuppressive regimen.

When patients are on a waiting list for lung transplantation, most lung transplant programs advise patients to discontinue sirolimus therapy³⁹. However, the cessation of sirolimus therapy introduces the risk of disease progression and worsening in lung function in patients with LAM. It has been suggested that keeping patients on sirolimus therapy, particularly at a low-dose regimen, is likely safe for patients awaiting lung transplantation³⁹. Nonetheless, a consensus exists that sirolimus not be used in the immediate post-lung transplant period to minimize the risk of bronchial anastomotic dehiscence. Long-term benefits of reinitiating sirolimus therapy after bronchial anastomotic healing has occurred remain to be determined. These potential benefits may include prevention of LAM recurrence in the transplanted lung, reducing the risk of pleural complications (for example, chylothorax), and control of extrapulmonary manifestations (for example, renal AMLs).

Other management issues in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Pneumothorax

Pneumothorax occurs commonly in patients with LAM. A National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) registry study of 230 patients with LAM reported pneumothorax to have occurred in 55.5% of subjects at enrollment into the study⁴. Recurrence of pneumothorax is also common, occurring on average 4.4 times among those with a history of pneumothorax⁴. Because the recurrence rate is high, current guidelines recommend pleurodesis at the time of the first episode of pneumothorax^3,11. However, pleurodesis in patients with LAM has limited efficacy and the recurrence rate of pneumothorax is reported to range between 18% and 32%^11,41. Therefore, more reliable methods to reduce the risk of recurrent pneumothorax in these patients have been sought. Kurihara et al. reported a new surgical technique using oxidized regenerated cellulose mesh to wrap the visceral pleura in a procedure called “total pleural covering” (TPC)⁴². They retrospectively analyzed 43 LAM patients who underwent the TPC procedure (54 hemithoraces), 11 of whom required bilateral lung surgeries. A Kaplan-Meier estimate of recurrence-free hemithorax was 80.8% at 2.5 years.

Chylothorax

Chylothorax occurs in about 7–10% of patients with LAM^4,43,44. The clinical effects and prognosis associated with chylothorax vary considerably^43,45. Several different types of lymphatic abnormalities associated with chylothorax have been identified by CT and lymphangiography⁴⁶. Iliac or retroperitoneal lymphatic vessel dilation and obstruction of the thoracic duct are most commonly observed. Although the majority of physicians believe that LAM patients with chylothorax should be provided a low-fat or fat-free diet, the use of such dietary maneuvers requires monitoring of the nutritional status to avoid malnutrition³. Observation or drainage by thoracentesis may be sufficient for patients with a small chylothorax³. Prior to sirolimus therapy, various surgical techniques, including pleurodesis, serial thoracenteses, and thoracic duct ligation, were employed in patients with varying degrees of efficacy^43,47,48.

Currently, the most effective management for chylothorax associated with LAM is considered sirolimus therapy. Initial reports on the beneficial effects of sirolimus therapy in managing chylothorax associated with LAM were published in 2008^49,50. Subsequent studies have confirmed the effectiveness of sirolimus therapy on controlling chylothorax^16,25,51,52.

Renal angiomyolipoma

Renal AMLs are found in about 30% of patients with sporadic LAM and 90% of those with TSC-related LAM⁴. Previously, the management of renal AMLs included embolization therapy or nephron-sparing surgery for tumors larger than 4 cm³. Clinical practice has changed since the advent of mTOR inhibitor therapy (that is, sirolimus or everolimus) for LAM and TSC-related manifestations. It is now well established that sirolimus effectively reduces the size of renal AMLs. In a report from Bissler et al., sirolimus reduced the volume of renal AMLs by about half after 1 year of treatment⁶. In a randomized placebo-controlled trial of everolimus for renal AMLs associated with sporadic LAM or TSC (EXIST-2), 42% of patients achieved a response defined as 50% reduction of tumor volume⁵³. A total of 58% of 112 patients achieved a response during a 4-year extension period of the study, while none of the treated patients experienced bleeding of the tumor or needed nephrectomy⁵⁴. Other studies have confirmed the effectiveness of sirolimus therapy for renal AMLs^16,17,22.

Pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) can be seen in patients with LAM with an estimated prevalence of 7% to 8%^55–57. PH is usually mild to moderate in severity but can be associated with significant impact on functional capacity^55–57. The mechanisms underlying PH may include hypoxemia (including exertion-related oxygen desaturation) and pulmonary vascular remodeling. Hemodynamic parameters tend to correlate with pulmonary function, especially FEV₁, diffusion capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (DLCO), and alveolar-arterial oxygen (PA-aO₂) gradient. A recent report suggests that PH may improve with sirolimus therapy⁵⁸.

Air travel

Ambient barometric pressure change that occurs during air travel has raised concerns regarding the risk of pneumothorax during flight for patients with cystic lung disease such as LAM. A survey study of 327 patients with LAM reported a rate of 2.2% for pneumothorax in flight⁵⁹. Other reported symptoms during air travel included chest pain, dyspnea, hypoxemia, nausea, dizziness, fatigue, headache, hemoptysis, and anxiety. Another study, of 281 patients with LAM, found a pneumothorax rate of 1.1% per flight⁶⁰.

Although the incidence of pneumothorax associated with air travel is low, advice regarding air travel should be formulated carefully on an individual basis⁶¹. Patients with existing pneumothorax should avoid air travel. Patients who have recovered from pneumothorax or thoracic surgery should delay air travel for a period of a few weeks, until full resolution and healing have been achieved. Patients with symptoms of chest pain, severe dyspnea, or low oxygen saturation should be medically evaluated in advance of planned air travel.

Pregnancy

LAM-associated complications, including pneumothorax and chylothorax, may occur during pregnancy, and concerns have been raised regarding possible association of pregnancy with progression of LAM^62,63. Women with LAM have also been reported to experience worse pregnancy outcomes, including a greater number of premature births and miscarriages^62,63.

Women with LAM should be informed of these increased risks associated with pregnancy³. Patients with mild or moderate LAM will likely tolerate pregnancy better compared with those with more severe disease. The decision to proceed to pregnancy is a personal one that is made on an individual basis after assessing the severity of LAM, potential risks, and other options to pregnancy. During pregnancy, the patient should be monitored carefully by a multidisciplinary team that can optimally manage a high-risk pregnancy.

Sirolimus is included in the C risk category (risk to fetus has not been ruled out, and adverse effect to the fetus has been shown in animal studies but no adequate studies of humans) for US Food and Drug Administration pregnancy labeling. There are reports of successful pregnancy without teratogenicity in solid organ transplant recipients receiving sirolimus. Currently, initiation of contraception is recommended before starting sirolimus therapy and continued for 12 weeks after discontinuation.

Avoidance of exogenous estrogen

Several lines of observation suggest that estrogen promotes the growth and spread of LAM cells. For example, LAM occurs mostly in women and seems to manifest slowing of disease progression after menopause. There are in vitro data demonstrating that neoplastic potential and survival of LAM cells are enhanced by estrogen⁶⁴. Thus, it is generally advised that exogenous estrogen exposure (for example, estrogen replacement therapy) be avoided for patients with LAM.

Summary

Not long ago, LAM was considered a uniformly fatal lung disease for those who became afflicted with this rare and poorly understood condition. Remarkable progress has occurred, particularly over the past decade, leading to effective medical therapy that prevents progression of disease for most patients. There are unanswered questions regarding the long-term efficacy and safety of mTOR inhibitor therapy for the treatment of LAM. In addition, there is a need to identify other medical treatment options for those patients who experience disease progression despite mTOR inhibition.

Competing interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

Grant information

The work of K-FX and XT was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (81570061), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFC0901502), the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Project (Z151100003915126), and the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) Initiative for Innovative Medicine (2017-12M-2-001).

F1000 recommended

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36. Kpodonu J, Massad MG, Chaer RA, et al.: The US experience with lung transplantation for pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005; 24(9): 1247–53. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
37. Weill D, Benden C, Corris PA, et al.: A consensus document for the selection of lung transplant candidates: 2014--an update from the Pulmonary Transplantation Council of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2015; 34(1): 1–15. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
38. Kaplan B, Qazi Y, Wellen JR: Strategies for the management of adverse events associated with mTOR inhibitors. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 2014; 28(3): 126–33. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
39. El-Chemaly S, Goldberg HJ, Glanville AR: Should mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors be stopped in women with lymphangioleiomyomatosis awaiting lung transplantation? Expert Rev Respir Med. 2014; 8(6): 657–60. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
40. Nashan B, Citterio F: Wound healing complications and the use of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors in kidney transplantation: a critical review of the literature. Transplantation. 2012; 94(6): 547–61. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
41. Almoosa KF, Ryu JH, Mendez J, et al.: Management of pneumothorax in lymphangioleiomyomatosis: effects on recurrence and lung transplantation complications. Chest. 2006; 129(5): 1274–81. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
42. Kurihara M, Mizobuchi T, Kataoka H, et al.: A Total Pleural Covering for Lymphangioleiomyomatosis Prevents Pneumothorax Recurrence. PLoS One. 2016; 11(9): e0163637. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
43. Ryu JH, Doerr CH, Fisher SD, et al.: Chylothorax in lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Chest. 2003; 123(2): 623–7. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
44. Ye L, Jin M, Bai C: Clinical analysis of patients with pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis (PLAM) in mainland China. Respir Med. 2010; 104(10): 1521–6. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
45. Taveira-DaSilva AM, Pacheco-Rodriguez G, Moss J: The natural history of lymphangioleiomyomatosis: markers of severity, rate of progression and prognosis. Lymphat Res Biol. 2010; 8(1): 9–19. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
46. Zhang C, Chen X, Wen T, et al.: Computed tomography lymphangiography findings in 27 cases of lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Acta Radiol. 2017; 58(11): 1342–8. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
47. Kaptanoglu M, Hatipoglu A, Kutluay L, et al.: Bilateral chylothorax caused by pleuropulmonary lymphangiomyomatosis: a challenging problem in thoracic surgery. Scand Cardiovasc J. 2001; 35(2): 151–4. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
48. Liu M, Wu B, Cui Y, et al.: Surgical treatment of chylothorax caused by lymphangioleiomyomatosis. J Thorac Dis. 2014; 6(2): E11–4. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
49. Sugimoto R, Nakao A, Yamane M, et al.: Sirolimus amelioration of clinical symptoms of recurrent lymphangioleiomyomatosis after living-donor lobar lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2008; 27(8): 921–4. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
50. Ohara T, Oto T, Miyoshi K, et al.: Sirolimus ameliorated post lung transplant chylothorax in lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2008; 86(6): e7–8. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
51. Barrera P, Simons SO, Luijk B, et al.: Efficacy of sirolimus therapy for chylous effusions in lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2013; 10(4): 408–9. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
52. Lama A, Ferreiro L, Golpe A, et al.: Characteristics of Patients with Lymphangioleiomyomatosis and Pleural Effusion: A Systematic Review. Respiration. 2016; 91(3): 256–64. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
53. Bissler JJ, Kingswood JC, Radzikowska E, et al.: Everolimus for angiomyolipoma associated with tuberous sclerosis complex or sporadic lymphangioleiomyomatosis (EXIST-2): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2013; 381(9869): 817–24. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
54. Bissler JJ, Kingswood JC, Radzikowska E, et al.: Everolimus long-term use in patients with tuberous sclerosis complex: Four-year update of the EXIST-2 study. PLoS One. 2017; 12(8): e0180939. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
55. Taveira-DaSilva AM, Hathaway OM, Sachdev V, et al.: Pulmonary artery pressure in lymphangioleiomyomatosis: an echocardiographic study. Chest. 2007; 132(5): 1573–8. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
56. Cottin V, Harari S, Humbert M, et al.: Pulmonary hypertension in lymphangioleiomyomatosis: characteristics in 20 patients. Eur Respir J. 2012; 40(3): 630–40. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
57. Freitas CSG, Baldi BG, Jardim C, et al.: Pulmonary hypertension in lymphangioleiomyomatosis: prevalence, severity and the role of carbon monoxide diffusion capacity as a screening method. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2017; 12(1): 74. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text | F1000 Recommendation
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¹ Department of Respiratory Medicine, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College and Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
² Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA

Kai-Feng Xu
Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project Administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Xinlun Tian
Roles: Conceptualization, Project Administration, Visualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Jay H Ryu
Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project Administration, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Competing interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

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The work of K-FX and XT was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (81570061), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2016YFC0901502), the Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Project (Z151100003915126), and the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (CAMS) Initiative for Innovative Medicine (2017-12M-2-001).

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Xu KF, Tian X and Ryu JH. Recent advances in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis [version 1; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2018, 7(F1000 Faculty Rev):758 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.14564.1)

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[31] 31. Baldi BG, Samano MN, Campos SV, et al.: Experience of Lung Transplantation in Patients with Lymphangioleiomyomatosis at a Brazilian Reference Centre. Lung. 2017; 195(6): 699–705. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

[32] 32. Ando K, Okada Y, Akiba M, et al.: Lung Transplantation for Lymphangioleiomyomatosis in Japan. PLoS One. 2016; 11(1): e0146749. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

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[34] 34. Nakagiri T, Shintani Y, Minami M, et al.: Lung Transplantation for Lymphangioleiomyomatosis in a Single Japanese Institute, With a Focus on Late-onset Complications. Transplant Proc. 2015; 47(6): 1977–82. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

[35] 35. Benden C, Rea F, Behr J, et al.: Lung transplantation for lymphangioleiomyomatosis: the European experience. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2009; 28(1): 1–7. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

[36] 36. Kpodonu J, Massad MG, Chaer RA, et al.: The US experience with lung transplantation for pulmonary lymphangioleiomyomatosis. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2005; 24(9): 1247–53. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

[37] 37. Weill D, Benden C, Corris PA, et al.: A consensus document for the selection of lung transplant candidates: 2014--an update from the Pulmonary Transplantation Council of the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2015; 34(1): 1–15. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

[38] 38. Kaplan B, Qazi Y, Wellen JR: Strategies for the management of adverse events associated with mTOR inhibitors. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 2014; 28(3): 126–33. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

[39] 39. El-Chemaly S, Goldberg HJ, Glanville AR: Should mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors be stopped in women with lymphangioleiomyomatosis awaiting lung transplantation? Expert Rev Respir Med. 2014; 8(6): 657–60. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

[40] 40. Nashan B, Citterio F: Wound healing complications and the use of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors in kidney transplantation: a critical review of the literature. Transplantation. 2012; 94(6): 547–61. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

[41] 41. Almoosa KF, Ryu JH, Mendez J, et al.: Management of pneumothorax in lymphangioleiomyomatosis: effects on recurrence and lung transplantation complications. Chest. 2006; 129(5): 1274–81. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text

[42] 42. Kurihara M, Mizobuchi T, Kataoka H, et al.: A Total Pleural Covering for Lymphangioleiomyomatosis Prevents Pneumothorax Recurrence. PLoS One. 2016; 11(9): e0163637. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text | F1000 Recommendation

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[45] 45. Taveira-DaSilva AM, Pacheco-Rodriguez G, Moss J: The natural history of lymphangioleiomyomatosis: markers of severity, rate of progression and prognosis. Lymphat Res Biol. 2010; 8(1): 9–19. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text

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Recent advances in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Table 1. Recent landmark events in the management of lymphangioleiomyomatosis.

Sirolimus therapy for lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Indications for sirolimus therapy in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Optimal dosage of sirolimus therapy in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Table 2. Suggested schedule of monitoring assessments for lymphangioleiomyomatosis patients on sirolimus therapy.

Safety of sirolimus therapy in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Sirolimus treatment failure

Pulmonary rehabilitation

Lung transplantation

Other management issues in lymphangioleiomyomatosis

Pneumothorax

Chylothorax

Renal angiomyolipoma

Pulmonary hypertension

Air travel

Pregnancy

Avoidance of exogenous estrogen

Summary

Competing interests

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