Keywords
Happiness, healthcare workers, human resources for health, physical work environment, health systems, Kenya
Happiness, healthcare workers, human resources for health, physical work environment, health systems, Kenya
Happiness is a prime goal of each individual1. Among these individuals are healthcare workers, who are the core of any health system2. Happiness is one of the significant factors of health system efficiency3. Happiness can result in better health outcomes, reduced health burden, better performance, increased career success, and increased possibility of a higher income at an individual, organizational and national level3. Happiness at work entails the collective experience of pleasure, positive emotions, work engagement, and a sense of meaning in life4. Experiencing happiness most of the time does not mean eliminating the negative affect aspects of life, because both are important depending on the situation5. Research on the growing epidemic of mental illness-related issues among healthcare workers, such as anxiety, burnout, depression and substance abuse, confirm the challenges they are experiencing6,7. In comparison, there is a dearth of research on healthcare workers’ positive mental health aspects such as happiness, especially in low- and middle-income countries6,7. To effectively develop and implement happiness policy among healthcare workers, empirical research is necessary8.
Researchers often interchangeably use the terms healthcare workers and healthcare professionals. In this study, healthcare workers are individuals trained to practice ethical and evidence-based medicine, and to provide quality health services9. Recently, an extensive systematic review on the determinants of healthcare professionals’ happiness reported that there is currently no universal definition of happiness8. In this study, happiness is viewed as the main result of positive affect and an intrinsic feeling that one’s life is purposeful and worth living10. According to Aristotle, happiness is one of the most important motivators of individuals to make particular choices11. An extensive detailed review of published literature on healthcare workers’ motivation was also published recently12.
The theoretical framework applied in this study is the authentic happiness theory. The authentic happiness theory by Seligman13 explains the pursuit of happiness in three orientations, namely, the pursuit of pleasure, pursuit of engagement, and pursuit of meaning14. The pursuit of pleasure is a basic level of happiness, characterized by an emotional expression such as smiling or laughter and short term activities that maximize pleasure and minimize pain13. The pursuit of engagement is the experience of flow15. Flow occurs when an individual utilizes all their cognitive and emotional resources, strengths and skills when engaging in a task15,16. Csikszentmihalyi explains that, although joy is not experienced instantly while being engulfed in the activity, it is the aftermath of the flow experience that is energizing14.
The third orientation to happiness is the pursuit of meaning, which, according to the authentic happiness theory, is the ultimate level of happiness13. Seligman believes when an individual serves something that is larger than themselves, such as family, community, religion, organizations, among others, an individual stands to achieve a sense of meaning13. Peterson and colleagues14 stated the higher scores on all three orientations to happiness equate to a full life. A full life is experienced by pursuing all three orientations associated with a life driven by intrinsic goals and high self-control17. A low score on all three orientations equates to an empty life14. The sole pursuit of pleasure, also known as hedonism, is associated with an empty life and low self-control17.
The multiple acts of service that healthcare workers perform mean they can achieve the highest levels of happiness due to the essential nature of their job. However, as much as healthcare workers such as physicians are expected to attain a sense of meaning from their work and remain stoic, happiness is often a neglected component in medical training18. The World Health Assembly resolution WHA69.19 titled “The Global strategy for human resources for health: workforce 2030”, urges the member states to actively address the health workforce needs through an intersectoral approach19. Health systems are comprised of both the public and private health sectors20. Thus, this empirical study contributes to literature on healthcare workers’ happiness in both public and private not-for-profit (e.g., mission or faith-based) hospitals.
The World Happiness Report (WHR) is published annually on International Happiness Day every 20th March since the year 201221. In the WHR, the state of happiness across the globe is reviewed22. Using the science of happiness, various factors affecting happiness of the general population are reported, to inform government policy22. Some of the identified factors of happiness in the general population include age, gender, income, work, governance, education, mental and physical health, values, and family experience23. In 2020, a systematic review reported both individual and organizational factors are significant for healthcare professionals’ happiness8. The factors identified were age, gender, positive attitude, altruism, a sense of meaning, mental and physical health, time management, work-life balance, and quality of life8. Both having a job and being happy at work are important, as people with jobs spend most of their lives at work24.
In the 2020 WHR, the environment quality significantly impacted individuals’ happiness25. Thus, this study aimed to assess the relationship between the physical work environment in the hospital and healthcare workers’ happiness. Previous studies assessing healthcare workers’ happiness reported their greatest limitations being a small sample size26–28. Researchers have recommended more studies need to be done among larger and more heterogeneous samples exploring multidimensional aspects of happiness among healthcare workers in multiple health system contexts8. In Africa, only one study on happiness among physiotherapists in South Africa has been published29. To effectively facilitate growth of health systems, more studies on happiness need to be done3. The present study was conducted in Kenya, which is a lower-middle-income country in Africa30.
The objective of this study is to investigate the factors influencing the self-assessed happiness among healthcare workers in public and mission hospitals, Meru County, Kenya. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study investigating happiness among healthcare workers in Kenya. This study will contribute to bridging knowledge gaps related to the role of healthcare workers’ happiness in the Kenyan health system. Empirical evidence is paramount in informing happiness policies related to the quantity and quality aspects of employment24. By investigating the role of demographic and physical work environment factors on happiness, this study will also contribute to information-based happiness strategies and policies geared towards health workforce strengthening. The present study focuses on the following aims:
1. To find the relative importance and strength of agreement of the orientations to happiness among healthcare workers.
2. To assess the significant difference between healthcare workers’ overall happiness in public and mission hospitals.
3. To evaluate the significant difference in the scores of orientations to happiness among healthcare workers between hospital ownership.
4. To explore the relationship between healthcare workers’ overall happiness and factors related to demographics and physical work environment.
Using a cross-sectional design, this study was performed in public and mission hospitals in Meru County, Kenya. Meru County is a rural area with a total population of 1,545,714 persons31. By 2019, the human resources for health within Meru County was 1872 with 954 medically trained healthcare workers, distributed across 183 health facilities32,33. The focus of this study was on all the 24 county referral service hospitals in Meru County, Kenya.
The present study was done between June 15, and July 31, 2020, which was during the Covid-19 global pandemic. In Meru County, by the end of June 2020, 16 cases were reported and towards the end of July 2020, 32 cases were reported in a population of 1,545,714 people31.
Participant selection within the hospitals was made among healthcare workers across different cadres using simple random sampling. To minimize selection bias, simple random sampling was selected as a sampling method because it allowed for each eligible respondent to have an equal probability of being selected. In this study, using a list of healthcare workers in each hospital was obtained from all the hospital administrations. Then respondents were selected according to a simple random number table. In person, respondents were invited and presented with an informed consent form explaining this study, subsequently the willing participants signed and voluntarily agreed to participate.
The Orientations to Happiness Questionnaire (OTH) was established and validated by Peterson et al., in 2005 to assess an individuals’ orientation to happiness (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-004-1278-z)14. The orientations constitute the three primary constructs that are measured in the 18-item questionnaire14. Each of the orientations to happiness has six items on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 representing “Not at all like me” to 5 representing “Very much like me”14. Respondents’ happiness index ranges from 18 (lowest possible), signifying an empty life, to 90 (highest possible score), signifying a full-life14. Various studies reported a Cronbach alpha for all the three orientations to range from 0.77 to 0.8814,34,35. The OTH has been used in various countries such as Australia35, South Africa34,36, Italy37, Switzerland38, USA35, and Croatia17.
A section on demographic factors and physical work environment factors were added to the questionnaire. In this study, the independent variables assessed were demographic and work-related, and physical work environment namely hospital ownership, sex, age, income, marital status, qualification, years of experience, healthcare worker cadre, employment type, in-service training, number of hours worked per week, household size, and staff housing39,40. The physical work environment variables were consistent supply of water, occurrence(s) of water unavailability, safe drinking water, acceptable primary source of water, type of toilet facility, risk when using toilet facility, hospital disposal of garbage, availability of water for hand washing, constant availability of soap for hand washing, hand washing station less than five meters from the toilet, workplace safety and health committee, overall safety of hospital working environment39,40.
These were the independent variables measured, while overall happiness was the dependent variable. On a scale of 0 to 1, when the Cronbach’s alpha is greater than 0.70, this means the instrument is reliable41. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha was 0.833, which shows that the instrument was reliable in measuring happiness among the respondents. The data analyzed in this study can be found in the Figshare repository42.
Statistical analysis was done using STATA® 15.1 (StataCorp., College Station, TX, USA). We calculated measures of central tendency, the relative importance index (RII), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and used a multivariate linear regression model to determine statistical significance of slope coefficients at 90% and 95% confidence levels of each variable. To control for confounding variables, we used a multivariate model specifically multivariate linear regression analysis. A multivariate linear regression model can handle multiple confounders at the same time43. The questionnaires that were had up to 50% missing data were excluded from the data analysis.
The RIIs were calculated using the following formula:
The RII formula applied shows W represented the weighting as per each respondent on a five-point Likert scale where 1 implies lower happiness scores and 5 higher happiness score. A represented the highest weight, in this case 5 based on the five-point scale. N represented the entire sample. The RII score is between 0 and 1; thus, the high values were 0.8 ≤ RII ≤ 1, high-medium values were 0.6 ≤ RII ≤ 0.8, medium values were 0.4 ≤ RII ≤ 0.6, medium low values were 0.2 ≤ RII ≤ 0.4, and low values were 0 ≤ RII ≤ 0.244.
The mean of the median absolute deviation (MADM) was a four-step process involving: (a) calculation of the median value of each of the 18 happiness variables; (b) calculation of the absolute deviation for each dependent variable represented as (x) in the sub-formula [xi – median]; (c) calculation of the median absolute deviation; (d) calculation of the MADM39. The MADM classifications signify the following: values of < 1.08 indicates high agreement, 1.08 – 1.41 indicates moderate agreement and, > 1.41 indicates low agreement45.
Using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), we examined if there was a statistical difference the orientations to happiness between participants working in public and mission hospitals. A linear multivariate regression analysis was performed to discover the significant factors that influence healthcare workers’ overall happiness. Where happiness (Yk) was the dependent variable and the demographic, and physical work environment factors were the 25 independent variables (Xjk). The linear multivariate regression model applied was as follows46:
Where: β0 indicates the constant or intercept term capturing the unexplained variations in the dependent variable Y. β1 indicates the slope coefficient measuring the amount by which Y will change when X changes by a single unit. k goes from 1 to n, in this case the 25 independent variables. X1k= stands for the kth observation value for the independent variable X1. ∈k is the error (disturbance) term that captures errors in model specification and other factors that influence healthcare workers’ happiness but are not explicitly considered in the model.
The protocol of this study was ethically approved by three institutions, namely:
1. The Faculty of Health Sciences Research Ethical Committee, University of Pretoria, South Africa (Reference number: 718/2019).
2. The Institutional Review Board (IRB), United States International University-Africa, Kenya (Reference number: USIU-A/IRB/130-2020).
3. The National Commission for Science, Technology, and Innovation (NACOSTI), Kenya (Research licence number: 901924).
The Meru County Government Department of Health also provided clearance for the conduct of this study (CGM/COH/1/17(50). This was followed by hospital administrative approvals from each of the 24 hospitals. The investigator provided respondents with informed consent forms explaining: the purpose of the study; participation in the research study was voluntary; refusal to participate would not have negative effect on their job; s/he has the liberty withdraw from the study at any time; research poses no risk. Following this explanation, respondents in this study voluntarily signed the informed consent forms, agreeing to participate.
In this study, from 566 questionnaires 553 were analyzed, thus the response rate was 97.7%, as 13 questionnaires were excluded from analysis due to 50% or more missing data39,40.
The study involved a sample of n= 553 healthcare workers42. This study revealed that majority of the healthcare workers under study worked in public hospitals (78.48%), were female (61.30%), nurses (30.56%), had attained a diploma (60.58%), were employed full-time (93.49%), had attended in-service training (66.00%), were married (63.11%), and earned between 46,000–65,000 Kenyan shillings (KES) (about US$ 460–650), 10.7 years of experience, worked for 39 hours per week, lived in a median household size of three individuals, were not accommodated within the hospital compound (86.62%), and were between the ages 20 and 78 years (the mean age was 36.5 years).
Out of the overall sample of respondents, 83.00% always had a water supply, but 17.00% did not; 39.78% reported experiencing occurrence of unavailability of water for one or more days at the hospital within a month, while 60.22% did not experience this challenge; 74.68% had access to safe drinking water, but 25.32% did not. In terms of sanitation facilities, 75.95% of the respondents reported that hospitals had flush or pour-flush toilets, while 24.05% reported hospitals had pit latrines.
In terms of risk when using toilet facilities, 74.50% reported no risk and 25.50% reported some risk. Of the latter, 17.90% reported health (e.g., infections) risk, 2.89% risk of injury, 2.71% harassment and 1.99% a combination of two or more types of risk. Responses regarding mechanism of disposal of hospital waste: 18.08% indicated formal collection service, 2.71% informal collection service, 32.73% disposal in a designated area, 24.95% disposal within the hospital compound, 9.40% disposal elsewhere (burning, burying or other) and 12.12% unknown.
The overall distribution of responses concerning hygiene factors was: 91.86% reported constant availability of handwash soap, but 8.14% reported unavailability; 84.63% reported receiving a consistent supply of water for hand washing, but 9.76% reported inconsistency on the same; 90.24% reported appropriate distance of either five meters or 10 steps away hand washing stations from toilet facilities; however, 9.76% disagreed with this statement. About 56.60% of respondents reported existence of an occupational (or workplace) safety and health committee, while 43.40% posited it did not exist. The overall perceived safety of the hospital working environment reported by respondents was 1.99% not safe, 17.90% slightly safe, 54.25% moderately safe, and 25.86% very safe.
Table 1 shows the mean scores and standard deviations of the three orientations to happiness by the overall sample (n=553) and hospital ownership sub-samples (public hospitals n=434 and mission hospitals n=119).
Among the orientations to happiness, the pursuit of meaning had the highest mean scores. In the overall sample, the pursuit of pleasure had the second highest mean scores, followed by the pursuit of engagement. The opposite order was reported for the second and third highest mean scores in mission hospitals, where the pursuit of engagement was second and pursuit of pleasure third (as shown in Table 1). The overall happiness average score was 64.59; 65.14 in public hospitals and 62.57 in mission hospitals (on an 18–90 scale).
The MADM results showed that healthcare workers moderately agreed to the pursuit of pleasure items as an orientation to happiness. Three items were moderately supported, and the healthcare workers strongly supported three other items. The healthcare workers highly agreed that the pursuit of engagement contributed to their happiness. Four items of the six were strongly supported, and the remaining two had moderate and low support in terms of their contribution to happiness. The pursuit of meaning items were all strongly supported as contributors to the healthcare workers happiness, signified by the high levels of agreement (see Table 2).
Orientations to happiness | Items | Number (%) rating <4 | Median | MAD1 | MADM2 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pursuit of pleasure | Life is too short to postpone the pleasures it can provide. | 271 (49.01) | 4 | 1 | 1.12 |
I go out of my way to feel euphoric (joyful). | 310 (56.06) | 3 | 1 | 1.12 | |
In choosing what to do, I always consider whether it will be pleasurable. | 265 (47.92) | 4 | 1 | 1.10 | |
I agree with this statement: “Life is short-eat dessert first.” | 356 (64.38) | 3 | 1 | 1.25 | |
I love to do things that excite my senses. | 259 (46.84) | 4 | 1 | 1.10 | |
For me, the good life is the pleasurable life. | 291 (52.62) | 3 | 1 | 1.16 | |
Pursuit of engagement | Regardless of what I am doing, time passes very quickly. | 260 (47.02) | 4 | 1 | 0.96 |
I seek out situations that challenge my skills and abilities. | 158 (28.57) | 4 | 1 | 0.80 | |
Whether at work or play, I am usually “in a zone” and not conscious of myself. | 441 (79.75) | 2 | 1 | 1.13 | |
I am always very absorbed in what I do. | 210 (37.97) | 4 | 1 | 0.87 | |
In choosing what to do, I always consider whether I can lose myself in it. | 270 (48.82) | 4 | 1 | 1.08 | |
I am rarely distracted by what is going on around me. | 320 (57.87) | 3 | 1 | 0.99 | |
Pursuit of meaning | My life serves a higher purpose. | 123 (22.24) | 5 | 0 | 0.76 |
In choosing what to do, I always consider whether it will benefit other people. | 119 (21.52) | 4 | 1 | 0.82 | |
I have responsibility to make the world a better place. | 92 (16.64) | 5 | 0 | 0.63 | |
My life has a lasting meaning. | 106 (19.17) | 5 | 0 | 0.66 | |
What I do matters to society. | 99 (17.90) | 5 | 0 | 0.65 | |
I have spent a lot of time thinking about what life means and how I fit into its big picture. | 236 (42.68) | 4 | 1 | 0.95 |
The relative importance of the orientations to happiness showed the pursuit of meaning was the most important, followed by the pursuit of pleasure. The pursuit of engagement was ranked third important orientation to their happiness (as shown in Table 3).
ANOVA analysis results. Hospital ownership explained 0.91% of the variance in overall happiness score among the healthcare workers. The ANOVA analysis results show there was a statistically significant difference between healthcare workers’ happiness and hospital ownership (p=0.2551) (as shown in Table 4).
N | R2 | Adjusted R2 | F | Sig. F change | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall happiness | 553 | 0.0091 | 0.0073 | 5.04 | 0.0251* |
There was a statistically significant difference between the hospital ownership, in the mean score of pursuit of pleasure (p<0.001) and pursuit of meaning (p=0.024) orientations to happiness. No statistically significant difference between the ‘pursuit of engagement’ scores and hospital ownership (p=0.241) were reported (as shown in Table 5).
Orientations to happiness | Hospital ownership | n | Mean | Std. dev. | F | Sig. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pursuit of pleasure | Public | 434 | 3.36 | 0.23 | 132.581 | 0.0001* |
Mission | 119 | 3.07 | 0.28 | |||
Pursuit of engagement | Public | 434 | 3.31 | 0.61 | 1.550 | 0.214 |
Mission | 119 | 3.23 | 0.66 | |||
Pursuit of Meaning | Public | 434 | 4.19 | 0.28 | 5.121 | 0.024* |
Mission | 119 | 4.12 | 0.36 |
Multivariate regression analysis results. Table 6 presents the multivariate regression model results for overall happiness, and demographic, and physical work environment factors. Hospital ownership and qualification were the two statistically significant demographic factors of the healthcare workers’ happiness. Related to the physical work environment, the acceptable primary source of water, type of toilet and workplace safety and health committee were the three significant factors of the healthcare workers’ overall happiness. The remaining 20 demographic and physical work environmental factors were statistically non-significant (p > 0.1). The linear multivariate regression model results illustrate eight demographic factors were negatively correlated with the healthcare workers’ overall happiness. The factors included hospital ownership, income, sex, age, marital status, qualification, household size and staff housing (p > 0.1). Five physical environment factors had negative association with healthcare workers’ overall happiness (p > 0.1). The constant demonstrates the 58.32% of the variance in the overall happiness (the dependent variable) were not explained by the independent variables.
Independent variables | Slope Coefficient. | Standard Error | T value | Significance | 95% confidence interval | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hospital Ownership | -2.274 | 1.235 | -1.84 | 0.066** | -4.701 | 0.153 |
Sex | -0.684 | 0.960 | -0.71 | 0.476 | -2.571 | 1.202 |
Age | -0.117 | 0.091 | -1.29 | 0.197 | -0.295 | 0.061 |
Income | -1.228 | 1.231 | -1.00 | 0.319 | -3.646 | 1.189 |
Marital status | -0.484 | 1.093 | -0.44 | 0.658 | -2.631 | 1.664 |
Qualification | -1.891 | 1.028 | -1.84 | 0.066** | -3.909 | 0.128 |
Years of experience | 0.062 | .105 | 0.59 | 0.555 | -0.145 | 0.269 |
Healthcare workers cadre | 1.120 | 1.061 | 1.06 | 0.291 | -0.963 | 3.204 |
Type of employment | 2.736 | 1.955 | 1.40 | 0.162 | -1.105 | 6.577 |
In-service training | 0.562 | 1.036 | 0.54 | 0.588 | -1.473 | 2.596 |
Hours worked per week | 0.054 | 0.035 | 1.55 | 0.121 | -0.014 | 0.122 |
Household size | -0.134 | 0.288 | -0.47 | 0.641 | -0.699 | 0.431 |
Staff housing | -0.148 | 1.416 | -0.10 | 0.917 | -2.930 | 2.633 |
Consistent supply of water | -0.528 | 1.491 | -0.35 | 0.724 | -3.457 | 2.402 |
Occurrence of water unavailability | -0.528 | 1.491 | -0.35 | 0.724 | -3.672 | 0.289 |
Safe drinking water | -1.526 | 1.236 | -1.24 | 0.217 | -3.954 | 0.901 |
Acceptable primary source of water | 2.755 | 1.471 | 1.87 | 0.062** | -0.134 | 5.644 |
Type of toilet facility | 2.699 | 1.111 | 2.43 | 0.015* | 0.515 | 4.882 |
Risk when using toiletry facility | -0.330 | 1.130 | -0.29 | 0.771 | -2.550 | 1.891 |
Hospital disposal of garbage | 1.127 | 1.206 | 0.93 | 0.351 | -1.242 | 3.496 |
Availability of water for hand washing | -0.813 | 1.664 | -0.49 | 0.625 | -4.08 | 2.456 |
Constant availability of soap | 1.945 | 1.983 | 0.98 | 0.327 | -1.951 | 5.841 |
≤5 meters of hand washing station from the toilet | 0.305 | 1.855 | 0.16 | 0.869 | -3.339 | 3.949 |
Workplace safety and health committee | 4.411 | 1.063 | 4.15 | 0.000* | 2.322 | 6.500 |
Overall safety of hospital working environment | 0.171 | 0.271 | 0.63 | 0.530 | -0.362 | 0.703 |
Constant | 58.320 | 4.067 | 14.34 | 0.000 | 50.331 | 66.309 |
The authentic happiness theory guided the investigation of factors influencing the self-assessed pursuit of happiness among healthcare workers in Meru County, Kenya. Our results show that five factors significantly contributed to healthcare workers’ overall happiness. The two significant demographic factors reported in this study were hospital ownership and qualification. Hospital ownership influenced the overall happiness of the healthcare workers. Healthcare workers’ overall happiness was slightly higher in public hospitals than those working in mission hospitals. Hospital ownership significantly influenced the healthcare workers’ pursuit of meaning and pleasure. However, in this study, there was insufficient evidence of hospital ownership influencing the pursuit of engagement in the larger population of healthcare workers. To date, this is the first study to investigate the association between the pursuit of happiness and hospital ownership among healthcare workers.
In the current study, the qualification or education level significantly influenced the overall happiness of healthcare workers. The more educated the respondents were, the lower their overall happiness scores. However, a study in India reported higher qualifications positively correlated with higher happiness47. The differences in our study and the Indian study could be a result of highly qualified healthcare workers in Kenya being part of the healthcare worker cadres experiencing the highest health workforce critical shortage such as doctors, clinical officers, nurses and specialists2. For skilled healthcare workers, the severe shortage results to heavier workload, thus resulting in demotivation12 and reduced happiness8. In this study, three of the five significant factors of healthcare workers overall happiness were part of the physical work environment.
This study emphasizes the importance healthcare workers place on cleanliness, water, and sanitation, and workplace health and safety in relation to their overall happiness as they provide health services. The availability of an acceptable primary source of water, functional flush toiletry facilities, and the presence of a functional workplace health and safety committee significantly contributed to the overall happiness of the healthcare workers. A Korean study similarly revealed an improved and enabling work environment significantly increased nurses happiness index48. One possibility for the significance of certain physical work environment factors in the healthcare workers happiness is that the physical work environment plays a part in the psychological attitude one has, either positive or negative. The attitude of healthcare workers in the workplace impacts the quality of healthcare, patient outcomes, and overall safety49. This study contributes to the authentic happiness theory by revealing the significant factors of happiness, and the order of relative importance of the orientation to happiness in a health setting.
In this study, the order from most to least important orientation to happiness among respondents was the pursuit of meaning, pleasure, then engagement.
In this study, living a meaningful life was the most important pursuit of happiness among healthcare workers. Similar findings have been reported regarding career meaning contributing to happiness among physicians50 and physiotherapists27. Our findings are also congruent with the African philosophy of happiness. Happiness in the African context stems from the meaningful aspect of human existence51. In African philosophy, the two ways the African people derive meaning and happiness are through the collectivist culture of communal bonds and believing in a higher supernatural being51. This signifies that attaining a sense of meaning through their work and collectivist activities, aimed at contributing to something larger than oneself, is important to healthcare workers. In the current study, the pursuit of pleasure was the second most important orientation among the respondents.
The pursuit of pleasure, also known as hedonism, is the desire to attain maximum pleasure with minimal pain and instant gratification13,17. As a result, the pursuit of pleasure is viewed as an impediment to long term happiness52. For instance, smoking among medical students53 for pleasure has been viewed as a risk-taking behavior at the price of longevity52. However, the negative or positive view of the pursuit of pleasure is dependent on the contextual meaning. In 2010, researchers reported healthcare professionals’ derived pleasure in the workplace by working as a team to save lives, minimize the pain of their patients and feeling valuable through providing quality care54. A positive pursuit of pleasure among healthcare workers involves organizational actions for instance reduced incidence of overtime and introducing leisure activity programs to promote healthcare workers’ happiness49. This implies that the pursuit of pleasure among healthcare workers can be considered as positive through maximizing pleasure and minimizing sources of pain. For example, improving the physical work environment, collectivistic activities such as team building that encourage teamwork, reducing the healthcare worker shortage, and providing psychological support aimed at promoting their happiness.
At work, the pursuit of engagement is also known as work engagement and is characterized by the experience of flow. According to Csikszentmihalyi, flow is attained through applying one’s signature strengths to perform challenging tasks, requiring high degree skill and dedication13,15. In the current study, the pursuit of engagement was the third most important pursuit of happiness. Previous studies have reported positive, significant and strong associations between healthcare workers’ work engagement and high productivity55, high job performance56, better teamwork57, improved patient safety55, and a better quality of health care55,57. Clearly, work engagement strategies need to be developed and implemented, because the score in this pursuit was the lowest of the three orientations to happiness in the current study. All orientations to happiness are essential in developing authentic happiness signified by a full life14.
A full life is attained by the collective scores of all the orientations to happiness, while the opposite is true for the empty life14. Collectively, the healthcare workers in this study were about 71.7% closer to attaining the highest score of overall happiness. The present study found the overall happiness scores were slightly higher among healthcare workers employed in public hospitals than those in mission hospitals. This could be attributed to the differences in hospital ownership, which have an impact on the health facility operations and availability of resources. The current findings show that there is an opportunity for empowering healthcare workers to achieve authentic happiness. Based on the findings of this study, healthcare workers’ happiness policies are important because experiencing happiness at work enables individuals to optimally function in the workplace5. By developing happiness policies and strategies that are sensitive and solve the healthcare workers’ issues, significant progress in strengthening the health workforce and health system in Kenya will be achieved. Health systems strengthening would result in improved health workforce responsiveness, universal access to quality healthcare services, improved productivity, and better patient outcomes58.
Based on these findings we believe happiness of healthcare workers should be mainstreamed into the ‘Kenya Health Policy’ and ‘Kenya Health Sector Strategic Plan’. This suggestion is based on the results of this study, and the United Nations General Assembly resolution advocating for happiness and well-being policies to be mainstreamed into public policies was passed by all Heads of State including Kenya1. The Kenyan health system stands to benefit from happier healthcare workers due to the probability of increased health system efficiency. It appears that healthcare workers’ happiness could be increased by enhancing and solving challenges related to demographic and physical work environmental factors. For example, healthcare workers’ qualification significantly contributed to their overall happiness. Thus, positive education can be mainstreamed into the healthcare workers pre-service curriculum and in-service training. Positive education would entail involving experts in the field to apply evidence-based approaches to teach healthcare workers how to be engaged, develop character strength, cultivate healthy relationships, practice physical wellbeing, and achieve a sense of meaning59. Positive education programs could empower healthcare workers to be competent enough to achieve authentic happiness.
The Government of Kenya should also consider applying a formal health care appraisal (HCA) system. According to the Global Happiness and Well-being Policy Report, a formal HCA provides an opportunity for governments to perform needs assessment, cost-benefit analysis, impact, and post-hoc analysis of regulations and interventions in health settings, to optimize the scarce healthcare resources60. Thus, the Government of Kenya can set happiness metrics, targets, and indicators to monitor and evaluate the impact of implementing happiness policies among healthcare workers. The happiness policies and implementation of happiness interventions could boost the healthcare workers’ mental health and wellbeing and the quality of care provided to patients60. At a national level, this is likely to contribute to the improvement of health indicators in Kenya.
Happiness policies would promote the focus of developing mental health. To effectively develop and implement happiness policy, strategic plans, and programs, the World Health Organization (WHO) has published a report titled ‘Mental Health Policy, Plans and Programmes’61. In this report WHO explains the seven essential steps of developing mental health policies, the four steps of creating a mental health plan, plus how to develop a mental health program61. Most importantly, the seven-step process of implementing the policy, plans and programs61. Using the results from this study and guided by the WHO report61, policy makers and implementers should seriously consider developing happiness policies, plans, and programs aimed at strengthening the health workforce and health system, by promoting mental health among healthcare workers in Kenya. Lastly, the development and implementation of happiness within the health system should involve most stakeholders such as policy makers in government, health mangers and healthcare workers in the public and private health sectors.
The results from this study should be interpreted in view of the study’s shortcomings. This study utilized a cross-sectional design; hence correlational evidence not causal evidence was derived on the relationship between variables. In future, the Government of Kenya should perform experimental design studies to assess costs and benefits of alternative healthcare workers’ happiness policies, programs and interventions geared towards health systems strengthening, at the national and county levels. Secondly, this study was based on self-assessed happiness data, which presents the possibility of response and social desirability bias. To reduce the tendency of response and social desirability biases, the researchers informed the respondents that anonymity would be upheld throughout the entire research process and encouraged them to be as honest as possible.
The scope of the present study did not assess the role of job characteristics on healthcare workers’ happiness. Future studies could explore the impact of job characteristics on happiness among healthcare workers. We also acknowledge that other quantitative and qualitative studies may produce different results due to contextual factors or methodological differences. Thus, more studies using different methodologies are necessary to bridge the knowledge gaps on healthcare workers’ happiness in Kenya. Finally, this study was done in one of 47 counties in Kenya, thus restricting the generalizability of the study results. In future, research geared towards promoting healthcare workers’ happiness should be carried out across the remaining 46 counties, to provide evidence-based healthcare worker happiness policies nationwide.
In Kenya, this is the initial study reporting healthcare workers’ level of happiness and factors influencing their pursuit of happiness. The most important orientation to happiness among the participants was the pursuit of meaning, followed by the pursuits of pleasure and engagement. These results were contextually synchronized to the African philosophy of happiness, where the sense of meaning is believed to be a significant element of ultimate happiness. This means that happiness policies, strategies, and programs aimed at empowering healthcare workers to attain a sense of meaning are more likely to be effective in promoting happiness. The MADM results showed that healthcare workers highly agreed that both the pursuit of engagement and meaning contributed more to their happiness than the pursuit of pleasure. These findings imply that health leaders and managers aiming to improve and effectively execute healthcare workers’ happiness strategies and programs need to consider all pursuits of happiness. Based on the OTH theory, this will enable healthcare workers to achieve authentic and long-term happiness, which are attributes of a full life. The factors of happiness reported in this study were hospital ownership, qualification, acceptable primary source of water, type of toilet facility and workplace safety and existence of a health committee. The findings provide an understanding that both demographic and physical work environment factors influence healthcare workers’ overall happiness. The policy implications for the factors reported, show that an intersectoral approach in designing and implementing evidence-based happiness policies and interventions, needs to be done involving both the private and public sectors.
Figshare: Data used to investigate healthcare workers’ pursuit of happiness in Kenya. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.13655822.v142.
This project contains the following underlying data:
- Dataset used to investigate healthcare workers' pursuit of happiness in Kenya RNDKM.xlsx. (The dataset includes some demographic and work-related variables from variable 1 to 25 and, the results from the Orientations to Happiness (OTH) questionnaire (Var 26–43). The healthcare workers' overall happiness scores were calculated based on the responses from Var 26–43, which are presented in Var 44. Below the dataset on the same data spreadsheet are variable definitions. It includes the variable label e.g., Var 1, Var 2 etc.; the variable definitions and coding descriptions.)
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero "No rights reserved" data waiver (CC BY 4.0 Public domain dedication).
We thank the following: The Department of Health, Meru County Government, and all the hospital management teams who permitted the present study to done in their health facilities. We are grateful to the University of Pretoria management for supporting this study. We are truly grateful to God, for providing the resources we needed to perform this study.
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Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Partly
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Yes
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Yes
References
1. Blanchflower DG, Oswald AJ: Is well-being U-shaped over the life cycle?. Soc Sci Med. 2008; 66 (8): 1733-49 PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full TextCompeting Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Partly
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required.
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
No
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Rural health; human resources for health; health professions education; health service management.
Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:
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Version 1 01 Mar 21 |
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Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. Consider the following examples, but note that this is not an exhaustive list:
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