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Research Article
Revised

Lightning Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic

[version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]
PUBLISHED 27 Oct 2021
Author details Author details
OPEN PEER REVIEW
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This article is included in the Research Synergy Foundation gateway.

Abstract

Background
COVID-19 has drastically dampened human activities since early 2020. Studies have shown that this has resulted in changes in air temperature and humidity. Since lightning activities are dependent on air temperature and humidity, this study is conducted to evaluate the correlation between the intensity of lightning activities with the atmospheric changes, and investigates the changes, in lightning activities due to atmospheric changes during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods
The hypothesis was tested through a t-test and Pearson’s correlation study. The variation trend of lightning strikes count (LSC) in Europe and Oceania during the five months COVID-19 lockdown period (March – July) compared to the same period in the previous five years from 2015 to 2019 is investigated.
Results
Statistical analysis shows the LSC in Europe and Oceania during the lockdown period dropped significantly by more than 50% and 44% respectively compared to the same period in previous five years. Furthermore, LSC was found to be positively correlated with air temperature and relative humidity in Europe. However, in Oceania, LSC seems to be only positively correlated with air temperature but negatively correlated with relative humidity.
Conclusions
This study seems to suggest that lightning activities have significantly changed during this pandemic due to reduction in human activities.

Keywords

lightning, air temperature, relative humidity, COVID-19, thunderstorm

Revised Amendments from Version 1

Literature review has been enhanced with the inclusion of the most recent relevant references based on the recommendation by the reviewers.
Clarity of the meaning of the "mean" value in Table 5 and the "plotted points" in Figures 2,3,5 and 6 have been enhanced.
Results section has been renamed to "Results and Discussion".

See the authors' detailed response to the review by Wooi Chin Leong
See the authors' detailed response to the review by Francisco Javier Pérez Invernón

Introduction

Many countries have enforced lockdown since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic.1-3 Energy-intensive human activities such as travelling and the hospitality sector were drastically reduced resulting in reduced emissions of greenhouse gases.4 The global CO2 emission is estimated to drop by 8.8% (−1551 Mt) in the first half-year of 2020 compared to the same period in 2019. Moreover, almost 18% of CO2 emissions in recent years were produced from ground transportation.5

With the exception of the preliminary findings by Jones et al.,6 the general expectation by researchers is that the trend of temperature is expected to be reduced due to the reduction in CO2. A significant positive correlation between the atmospheric temperature and CO2emission is reported in.7 Furthermore, COVID-19 lockdown has caused micro-climate changes such as localized variations in air temperature and relative humidity.8 The pandemic is also having an effect on NOX, causing a decline that could possibly lead to short-term cooling.9 Air humidity will also be affected as global warming are dependent on both temperature and humidity.10 This reduction in human activities could also result in drop in aerosol level globally. This reduction in human activities could also result in drop in aerosol level globally. The result of lockdown has disrupted human and industrial activities around the world. The lockdown generally leads to a notable change in carbon dioxide (CO2), temperature, and humidity. However, the reduction in human activities may reduce greenhouse gases and may result in a drop in global temperature. The study by Singh et al. found that implementation of lockdown reduced the percentage of temperature and may mitigate the pace of climate change in the future.8

Lightning, a natural atmospheric discharge, is affected by various environmental factors. Lightning brings about hazards to human life and appropriate risk assessment has to be conducted for any habitable structure.11,12 Atmospheric variables such as climate change, humidity, aerosol level, and wind motion can affect the cloud charge distribution, electric field and threshold electromagnetic fields that give rise to air breakdown. It is predicted that lightning may strike more frequently as a result of the ongoing climate change.13 The lightning intensity may also increase due to the high greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. However, study by Finney et al. stated that many previous studies found a positive correlation between lightning and temperature, and one previous study that found lightning decreases with an increase in temperature.14 This may explain that such relationships become highly uncertain on longer timescales. When warm, wet air rises into the cold air, thunderstorms form. As the warm air cools, moisture in the form of water vapour condenses into water droplets, a process known as condensation. Cooled air descends through the atmosphere, warms up, and rises again. A convection cell is a circuit of rising and descending air. A cloud will form if this happens in a small amount. A thunderstorm can arise if this happens with a lot of air and moisture. The presence of high air temperature and high relative humidity can quickly rise and cause powerful updrafts. These updrafts carried water droplets and quickly froze and collided with ice crystals and graupel, causing the charge transfer process.

Lightning could also be triggered by aerosols released by industrial processes and transportation activities.15,16 Aerosol could affect lightning activity through modification of cloud micro-physics. Aerosol particles serve as cloud condensation nuclei and ice nuclei, and the amount of this particles could affect the formation of cloud droplets and ice particles. More aerosol will suppress the coalescence and making the average size of cloud droplet to be reduced as well as inhibiting precipitation. Therefore, the process enables the water droplets to rise further to upper layers of the clouds and may enhance the lightning processes. During the lockdown period, many industrial sectors stopped operating. Thus, human activities have considerably reduced during the COVID-19 pandemic which may affect the rate of lightning. Lightning ground flash density tends to increase with drier and warmer surface air.17 Furthermore, the frequency of thunderstorms shows a major peak during summer time.19 Previous studies have also found a strong relationship between relative humidity and lightning occurrence.19,20 Studies from Pinto Neto et al.,21 and Perez-Invernon et al.,22 found lightning intensity decreased drastically during lockdown period compared to previous year. This is due to the average value of aerosol which played a major role in lightning events have dropped significantly during lockdown period. Last but not least, Chowduri et al. also concurred that the reduction in particulate matter and aerosol concentration bears strong correlation with the reduction in lightning activity in Kolkata during the COVID-19 lockdown.23

Hence, it is of interest to investigate the correlation between the environmental changes that happened during the period of COVID-19 related restriction of human activities and the lightning occurrence density. This study is an attempt to analyse this situation. This study investigates the trend of five months of lightning occurring from March to July in 2020 compared with the same period (March-July) in 2015-2019 in Europe and Oceania. The outcomes of this work could yield interesting insights into the correlation between human activities and lightning frequency.

Methods

Overview

Lightning stroke counts (LSC) and two atmospheric factors namely air temperature and relative humidity are considered as the variables in this study. The relationship between LSC with respect to air temperature and relative humidity will be statistically analysed via the dependent t-test and Pearson correlational studies.

Data description

From March until July in Europe and Oceania, the total LSC from the year 2015 to 2020 were extracted from LightningMaps.org.24 LightningMaps.org provides historical data of LSC and has been widely used in previous studies.25,26 The distribution of LSC data is presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. LSC in Europe (2015-2020).

MonthDayYear
201520162017201820192020
March1-103594194976853478081311992 388282
11-2092900984261719812751211212469633
21-312418005722670447122112124324130382
April1-1013572014755131902134249646129067008
11-20127720303901137021369496358290271908
21-30388220112051420211030496739790299408
May1-106956593376274756641365371497596426035
11-20982159572627109716412488701101096432035
21-31827659195642718076642232870949296481535
June1-1019997171774966175374334138501808843858421
11-20214051914234661058744229975125310431080921
21-306362192987966327024319073511555843942421
July1-10250687113083062164302212982122785801056066
11-2012716722028806201430221833201589581663066
21-31161067130768063005001290822020515811207066

Table 2. LSC in Oceania (2015-2020).

MonthDayYear
201520162017201820192020
March1-1053851114529143439160457304771107194
11-201042511384792555899885749777199195
21-3111925278379166239177507393771183794
April1-101750974985795565162905204339156121
11-201471975070677865252705120840139171
21-30167797565069416512710617184098270
May1-1085097496519101594666149871122090
11-2035348663019246512516615967188940
21-31210986400019170413981623327154040
June1-1017875163961167355773914158896783
11-20140752038682686934889228860583
21-301247552596450361148387233873683
July1-1017891320095942410441760083134932
11-20692915169992524980179003289333
21-31428914040914747413501614738282382

The air temperature and relative humidity data from March until July in Europe and Oceania from year 2020 are extracted from the Physical Sciences Laboratory using Panoply Version 4.12.0.27 Europe is divided into seven sub-regions such as North Europe, West Europe, Central Europe, East Europe, South Europe, Southeast Europe, and the British Isles. After that, eight points (57.5°N, 10.0°E; 42.5°N, 12.5°E; 50.0°N, 25.0°E; 50.0°N, 5.0°E; 50.0°N, 10.0°E; 50.0°N, 20.0°E; 52.5°N, 0.0°; 42.5°N, 22.5°E) of around the sub-regions of Europe were selected in this study. For the Oceania region, five points (−12.5°N, 132.5°E; −37.5°N, 142.5°E; −27.5°N, 152.5°E; −30.0°N, 115.0°E; −27.5°N, 135.0°E) covering the North, South, East and West of Australia; Three points (−37.5°N, 175°E; −45.0°N, 167.5°E; −42.5°N, 170.0°E) covering the North, South and Centre of New Zealand; one point (−10.0°N, 147.5°E) from Papua were considered. Tables 3 and 4 show the average value of air temperature and relative humidity in Europe and Oceania in year 2020.

Table 3. Air temperature and relative humidity in 2020 (Europe).

MonthDayAverage air temperature (°C)Average relative humidity (%)
March1-107.3677.96
11-208.7773.63
21-3110.2069.12
April1-1011.3967.81
11-2012.2269.38
21-3013.0471.16
May1-1014.2873.47
11-2015.3376.71
21-3117.5780.11
June1-1018.6980.59
11-2018.9978.23
21-3019.5675.71
July1-1020.0974.82
11-2020.6675.25
21-3121.2375.75

Table 4. Air temperature and relative humidity in 2020 (Oceania).

MonthDayAverage air temperature (°C)Average relative humidity (%)
March1-1021.1872.82
11-2020.6573.04
21-3120.1373.34
April1-1019.3873.81
11-2018.3774.33
21-3017.3874.74
May1-1016.6775.27
11-2016.3375.86
21-3116.0176.46
June1-1015.6976.58
11-2015.3476.17
21-3015.0175.79
July1-1014.9875.22
11-2015.3274.53
21-3115.6573.82

Statistical approach

A dependent t-test is was conducted using Microsoft Excel 2016 (Microsoft Excel, RRID:SCR_016137) to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between the LSC during the lockdown period in the year 2020 and the LSC in the same period (March-July) in year 2015 until 2019. The LSC is measured from a single population (Europe or Oceania) and two different timelines (before and during). Period A represents the lightning activities before lockdown period i.e. March to July in year 2015 to 2019. Period B represents the lightning activities during the lockdown i.e. March to July in the year 2020.

The t-test is conducted by comparing the data from Period B and Period A. The null hypothesis, H0 and the alternative hypothesis, Ha is defined as below:

H0: There is no significant difference in lightning frequency in between Period A and Period B.

Ha: There is a significant difference in lightning frequency in between Period A and Period B.

The confidence level of 95% at a significant level, α=0.05 is used. This approach tests the hypothesis and calculates the probability of determining whether there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis. When the P value < 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected, and vice versa.

Next, the Pearson correlation coefficient is used to evaluate the correlation between the frequency of lightning activities with the atmospheric changes. The Pearson’s correlation coefficient, r, is computed to measure the strength of the relationship between total lightning strikes, air temperature, and relative humidity in Period B.

Furthermore, the correlation between the variables was analysed using regression and correlation analyses. The significant level, P value can be obtained from the regression data analysis. The null hypothesis, H0 and the alternative hypothesis, Ha is defined as below:

Null hypothesis, H0: P = 0, There is no significant relationship between lightning strikes with air temperature or relative humidity.

Alternative hypothesis, HA: P ≠ 0, There is a significant relationship between lightning strikes with air temperature or relative humidity

By using the P-value method (α=0.05), the decision on rejection or acceptance of the null hypothesis can be made. There is sufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant correlation between lightning strikes and air temperature or relative humidity as the correlation coefficient is significantly different from zero. Exact P values and the mean value of lightning strikes from May to July are provided in Table 5.

Table 5. t-test results comparing lightning strikes in 2020 with previous years in Europe.

Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2019
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020538279<.001Reject H0
20191085280
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2018
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020538279<.001Reject H0
20181450823
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2017
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020538279.011Reject H0
20171154525
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2016
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020538279.016Reject H0
20161085409
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2015
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020538279.013Reject H0
2015912896

Results and discussion

Europe

Figure 1 shows the LSC has dropped significantly in the year 2020 when the lockdown started. The dependent t-test shows a statistically significant (P-value <0.05) difference between 2020 and each previous year as shown in Table 5. Notably, LSC in Europe during the five-month lockdown period were reduced by more than 50% compared to the same period in the year 2019, 2018, and 2017.

0fc9f435-c598-4b31-a321-189175a61fa1_figure1.gif

Figure 1. LSC in Europe from March-July in year 2015–2020.

Figure 2 illustrates the variation of LSC against air temperature levels in Europe. Figure 3. illustrates the relationship between LSC and relative humidity in Europe. Table 6 shows that the correlation of lightning strikes with air temperature and relative humidity in Europe are statistically significant. The Pearson correlation between lightning strikes and air temperature is 0.92, indicating a strong positive relationship between the variables. Pearson correlation between LSC and relative humidity is 0.52, indicating a moderate positive relationship between the variables. Higher relative humidity may enhance the upward updraft and easing the particle collision in the cloud. On the other hand, lower relative humidity may lead to weaker updraft and decreased the chance of lightning occurrence. The positive correlation between lightning strikes with air temperature and relative humidity in Europe concurs with the findings of.17,19,20,28,29

0fc9f435-c598-4b31-a321-189175a61fa1_figure2.gif

Figure 2. LSC vs air temperature over Europe during March to July 2020.

0fc9f435-c598-4b31-a321-189175a61fa1_figure3.gif

Figure 3. LSC vs relative humidity over Europe during March to July 2020.

Table 6. Correlation strength of lightning strikes with air temperature and relative humidity in Europe.

Correlation coefficient, RP-valueCorrelation strength
Air temperature0.92<.001Very high
Relative humidity0.52.047Moderate

Oceania

There was a 44% drop in LSC from 2019 to 2020 as shown in Figure 4. Table 7 shows there is statistically significant difference between the year 2020 with all previous years except 2017. Figure 5 and Table 8 indicates a moderate positive correlation between LSC and air temperature in Oceania during the lockdown period. Unlike Europe, Figure 6 and Table 8 shows that the relationship between LSC and relative humidity in Oceania is negatively correlated. The positive correlation of LSC and air temperature is consistent with previous studies.28,29 The negative correlation of LSC and relative humidity in Oceania obtained in this study contradicted the study of Shi et al.20

0fc9f435-c598-4b31-a321-189175a61fa1_figure4.gif

Figure 4. LSC in Oceania from March-July in year 2015–2020.

Table 7. t-test results comparing lightning strikes in 2020 with previous years in Oceania.

Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2019
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020105767.016Reject H0
2019189324
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2018
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020105767.050Reject H0
2018129513
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2017
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020105767.536Do Not Reject H0
2017116795
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2016
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020105767.001Reject H0
201658794
Comparison of lightning strikes in 2020 and 2015
YearMeanP-valueDecision
2020105767.012Reject H0
201572232
0fc9f435-c598-4b31-a321-189175a61fa1_figure5.gif

Figure 5. LSC vs air temperature over Oceania during March to July 2020.

Table 8. Correlation strength of lightning strikes with air temperature and relative humidity in Oceania.

Correlation coefficient, RP-valueCorrelation strength
Air temperature0.55.034Moderate
Relative humidity−0.54.037Moderate
0fc9f435-c598-4b31-a321-189175a61fa1_figure6.gif

Figure 6. LSC vs relative humidity over Oceania during March to July 2020.

Conclusions

In conclusion, there was a drastic drop in LSC in Europe and Oceania during the first lockdown period in 2020. A dependent t-test confirmed that a statistically significant difference in LSC between Period A and Period B. There is a positive relationship between LSC and air temperature in Europe (r = 0.92) and Oceania (r = 0.55). Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between LSC and relative humidity in Europe (r = 0.52) but a negative relationship between LSC and relative humidity in Oceania (r = −0.54).

The difference in correlation findings between lightning and relative humidity in Europe and Oceania remains unexplained. Higher relative humidity will lead to stronger updraft and increased lightning occurrence. However, too much vapor may weaken the updraft by blocking the vapor to rise up to complete the phase transformation.

The differences in correlation between lightning, air temperature, and relative humidity in Europe and Oceania may also be due to other possible factors such as aerosol level, wind motions, and particulate matter. Future work should be replicated in other geographical regions such as America and Asia.

Author roles

Fazandra Y: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing;

Siow C.L.: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – Review & Editing

Chandima G.: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Aravind C.: Methodology, Validation

Lee C.P.: Validation, Supervision

Data availability statement

All data underlying the results are available as part of the article and no additional source data are required.

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Yusfiandika F, Lim SC, Gomes C et al. Lightning Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. F1000Research 2021, 10:906 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.70650.2)
NOTE: If applicable, it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
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Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW
ApprovedThe paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested
Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit.
Not approvedFundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions
Version 2
VERSION 2
PUBLISHED 27 Oct 2021
Revised
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Reviewer Report 28 Oct 2021
Francisco Javier Pérez Invernón, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 
Approved with Reservations
VIEWS 20
The authors have successfully addressed most of my comments and the manuscript has improved.

However, I still recommend adding some statement about the Detection Efficiency (DE) of the sensors used by LightningMaps.org. The authors assumed that the ... Continue reading
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HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT
Pérez Invernón FJ. Reviewer Report For: Lightning Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. F1000Research 2021, 10:906 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.78244.r98046)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 03 Nov 2021
    Chun Lim Siow, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, 63100, Malaysia
    03 Nov 2021
    Author Response
    Thank you for the recommendation to improve the quality of this manuscript.

    We have added the following sentence to clarify our assumption of Detection Efficiency:

    "It is assumed ... Continue reading
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
  • Author Response 03 Nov 2021
    Chun Lim Siow, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, 63100, Malaysia
    03 Nov 2021
    Author Response
    Thank you for the recommendation to improve the quality of this manuscript.

    We have added the following sentence to clarify our assumption of Detection Efficiency:

    "It is assumed ... Continue reading
Version 1
VERSION 1
PUBLISHED 09 Sep 2021
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Reviewer Report 23 Sep 2021
Wooi Chin Leong, Centre of Excellence for Renewable Energy, School of Electrical Systems Engineering, Pauh Putra Campus, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Arau, Malaysia 
Approved
VIEWS 34
This is an interesting study on the lightning activities during the covid-19 pandemic periods. This article also relates lightning to air temperature and humidity. However, there are some parts of the article that can be further justified in order to ... Continue reading
CITE
CITE
HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT
Chin Leong W. Reviewer Report For: Lightning Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. F1000Research 2021, 10:906 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.74252.r94274)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 27 Oct 2021
    Chun Lim Siow, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, 63100, Malaysia
    27 Oct 2021
    Author Response
    Comment:
    This is an interesting study on the lightning activities during the covid-19 pandemic periods. This article also relates lightning to air temperature and humidity. However, there are some parts ... Continue reading
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
  • Author Response 27 Oct 2021
    Chun Lim Siow, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, 63100, Malaysia
    27 Oct 2021
    Author Response
    Comment:
    This is an interesting study on the lightning activities during the covid-19 pandemic periods. This article also relates lightning to air temperature and humidity. However, there are some parts ... Continue reading
Views
55
Cite
Reviewer Report 16 Sep 2021
Francisco Javier Pérez Invernón, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt, Institut für Physik der Atmosphäre, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany 
Not Approved
VIEWS 55
This manuscript reports an analysis of the changes in lightning, temperature and relative humidity between 2015 and 2020, including the COVID-19 lockdown period. The authors find a significant change in these variables during the lockdown. They perform a statistical analysis ... Continue reading
CITE
CITE
HOW TO CITE THIS REPORT
Pérez Invernón FJ. Reviewer Report For: Lightning Behaviour during the COVID-19 Pandemic [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. F1000Research 2021, 10:906 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.74252.r94352)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 27 Oct 2021
    Chun Lim Siow, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, 63100, Malaysia
    27 Oct 2021
    Author Response
    General Comments:

    This manuscript reports an analysis of the changes in lightning, temperature and relative humidity between 2015 and 2020, including the COVID-19 lockdown period. The authors find a ... Continue reading
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
  • Author Response 27 Oct 2021
    Chun Lim Siow, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, 63100, Malaysia
    27 Oct 2021
    Author Response
    General Comments:

    This manuscript reports an analysis of the changes in lightning, temperature and relative humidity between 2015 and 2020, including the COVID-19 lockdown period. The authors find a ... Continue reading

Comments on this article Comments (0)

Version 3
VERSION 3 PUBLISHED 09 Sep 2021
Comment
Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:
Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested
Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit.
Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions
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