Keywords
Preoperative Carbohydrate Loading, Pediatric Surgery, Preoperative Fasting, Perioperative Care
Preoperative carbohydrate loading (PCL), part of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols, involves giving carbohydrate-rich liquids before surgery instead of traditional fasting. It improves glucose control, reduces insulin resistance, and enhances patient comfort.
A comprehensive scoping review was conducted using databases such as PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science, focusing on studies from 2017 to 2024. Primary, English-language clinical trial involving pediatric patients were included without restrictions on surgical procedure, or outcomes. Data extraction was focused on sample sizes, PCL types, and perioperative outcomes.
The scoping review examined 11 studies on PCL in pediatric surgery, covering various procedures with sample sizes ranging from 18 to 1200 participants. Most studies indicated metabolic benefits, with 7 out of 11 showing stabilized blood glucose and reduced hypoglycemia risk. Additionally, 5 studies associated PCL with reduced preoperative anxiety, agitation, and discomfort, including thirst and hunger. For stomach content, 5 studies showed PCL reduced gastric residual volume and improved pH. Postoperative findings were mixed: 4 studies found no significant difference in nausea and vomiting, while 2 suggested benefits. Length of hospital stay from 3 studies showed no clinical difference results.
PCL in pediatric surgery shows potential to stabilize blood glucose, reduce metabolic risks, and improve recovery. However, the evidence regarding outcomes such as length of hospital stay and postoperative complications remains inconsistent, indicating the need for further investigation.
Preoperative Carbohydrate Loading, Pediatric Surgery, Preoperative Fasting, Perioperative Care
In this minor revision, we addressed all remaining reviewer comments to improve clarity and quality. The abstract now explicitly mentions the knowledge gap in preoperative carbohydrate loading (PCL) in children that the review aims to address. The final line of the introduction was revised to clarify the purpose of the scoping review. In the search strategy, "Databases to be searched include" was updated to "Databases searched included." The results section was corrected by removing redundant phrases and replacing placeholders with the actual number of excluded records.
See the authors' detailed response to the review by Vibhavari Naik and Abhijit Sukumaran Nair
Preoperative carbohydrate loading (PCL) has emerged as a key component in optimizing surgical outcomes, particularly within the framework of Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols. The practice involves administering carbohydrate-rich clear liquids to patients in the hours leading up to surgery, which contrasts with the traditional approach of fasting from midnight. This approach has shown benefits, including improving perioperative glucose control, reducing insulin resistance, and enhancing patient comfort. Additionally, preoperative carbohydrate therapy offers physiological advantages, such as reducing the stress response associated with surgery and contributing to better recovery. While the evidence supporting PCL continues to grow, these studies underline the need for further research to establish standardized protocols and maximize patient outcomes across diverse surgical populations.1–3
PCL has gained support for its potential benefits in surgery, particularly for its role in reducing insulin resistance (IR), inflammation, and length of hospital stay, without increasing gastric volume. While much of the existing evidence focuses on adult populations, including elderly patients undergoing major procedures like colorectal surgery, the application of PCL in pediatric surgery is less established.3–6 In pediatric patients, while research is more limited, similar benefits have been observed, including less nausea and reduced gastric contents with no increased aspiration risk during procedures. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal use of carbohydrate loading in various pediatric age groups and conditions.7 This scoping review aims to systematically examine the effects and safety of PCL in pediatric patients reported from recent clinical trials, focusing on perioperative benefits.
The scoping review main question is “What is the current evidence on the effects and safety of PCL in pediatric surgery?”.
To conduct a comprehensive scoping review on PCL in pediatric surgery, we used a multi-database approach. The databases searched include PubMed (MEDLINE), CINAHL, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science. The searchemployed a range of terms such as (“Preoperative Carbohydrate Loading” OR “Preoperative Carbohydrate Supplementation” OR “Preoperative Carbohydrate Administration”) AND (“Pediatric Surgery” OR “Child Surgery” OR “Pediatric Surgical Procedures” OR “Children Surgery”).
Primary original English articles examining PCL clinical trial in pediatric patients published from 2017 to 2024 were included from scholarly journals. There were no limitation in surgical procedure and study outcome. Exclusion criteria filtered out articles not related to pediatric populations or those focused exclusively on adult populations or unrelated to PCL. The PRISMA flow chart provides a detailed summary of the study selection process, documenting the number of articles that advanced through each stage of screening.
The selection process involve screening titles and abstracts to select relevant studies based on inclusion criteria. Full-text articles were reviewed to confirm relevance and quality. Two reviewers ensured accuracy and consistency, resolving discrepancies through discussion or a third reviewer if needed. For each article, data were extracted concerning type of pediatric surgery, sample sizes, type of PCL and control group used, and outcomes measured and results. The outcome results were reported from each article individually, presenting the available information in accordance with the data provided, such as mean, standard deviation (SD), median, interquartile range (IQR), sample size (n), percentage (%), and p-values.
The authors independently reviewed the methodological quality of the studies using the ‘Risk of bias’ tool, which has undergone modifications and improvements, with an updated version Risk of Bias (RoB) Assessment 2.0 Tools. They evaluated key aspects such as the randomization process, deviations from the intended intervention, missing outcome data, outcome measurement, and selection of reported outcomes. Each study was classified as having low, some concerns, or high risk of bias for each domain. Studies were rated as “low risk” if the information was clear and complete, “high risk” if certain details were missing or suggested a clear risk of bias, and “some concerns” if the data were incomplete.
Two independent reviewers conducted a comprehensive literature search across databases and registers, yielding a total of 1471 records. After removing duplicates, 1125 unique records remained. These records were screened based on titles and abstracts, resulting in the exclusion of 397 studies that did not meet the inclusion criteria. 332 full-text articles could not be retrieved for detailed review. Subsequently, 396 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility, of which 385 were excluded due to ineligible research articles, review articles, books, case reports, and other articles. The scoping review identified a total of 11 studies that investigated the effects of PCL in pediatric surgery ( Figure 1 and Table 1).
The studies included a diverse range of surgical procedures, with most focusing on elective operations such as abdominal, orthopedic, and cardiac surgeries. Sample sizes varied across the studies, ranging from 18 to 1200 participants. Interventions typically involved administering a carbohydrate-rich drink 2-3 hours before surgery, with comparison groups following traditional fasting protocols. The outcomes reported included stomach content, metabolic indicators, incidence of preoperative anxiety and agitation, postoperative complications including nausea and vomiting and length of hospital stay. Additionally, we assessed the risk of bias and found that 4 studies had a low risk, 5 studies had some concerns, and 1 study had a high risk ( Figures 2 and 3).
No | Author (year) | Study design | Number of patients | Carbohydrate intervention group (n) | Comparison group (n) | Outcome | Outcome results |
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1 | Akgun (2024)14 | RCT | 90 | 11 g/100 mL apple juice without fat or protein with 5 mL/kg dose 1 hour before surgery (Group C, n = 30) | 5 mL/kg Water 1 hour before surgery (Group W, n =30) and 6 hour fasting group (Group F, n = 30) | m-YPAS, GRV, gastric antral CSA, 20th minute of surgery blood glucose |
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2 | Karami (2020)13 | RCT | 120 | 5 ml/kg of 20% dextrose solution 2 hours before surgery (Intervention Group, n = 60) | 5 ml distilled water (Control Group, n = 60) | Perioperative agitation |
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3 | Laird (2023)8 | RCT | 119 | sugar-free cordial drink containing a carbohydrate load (Polyjoule® 24%, 90kcal/100 ml) 2 hours before surgery (Group A, n = 60) | sugar-free cordial and water drink (Group B, n = 59) | Incidence of postoperative nausea, vomiting, pain, and irritability, LOS and preoperative before induction metabolic state (blood glucose, ketone and gases) |
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4 | Drobjewski (2018)16 | RCT | 120 | 5 ml/kg of a lemon-flavoured 0.126 g carbohydrat or 0.5 kcal or 2.15 kJ beverage (PreOp™) 2 hours before endoscopy (Carbohydrate group, n = 60) | Standart fasting, 6 h for solid foods, 4 h for breast milk adn 2 h for clear fluids (Fasting group, n = 60). | Volume and pH of each patient’s stomach content, preoperative thirst and hunger, postoperative nausea and vomiting, and perioperative discomfort ratings |
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5 | Jiang (2018)9 | prospective, multi-center, randomized study | 1200 | 10% carbohydrate solution 2 h before anesthesia. (Group B 5 mL/kg, n = 300; Group C 10 mL/kg, n = 300; Group D 15 mL/kg, n = 300) | preoperative fasting at 6 hours before anaesthesia (Group A, n = 300) | Blood glucose, gastric residual, crying ratio perioperatively, hospital stay |
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6 | Zhang (2020)17 | Randomized crossover study | 18 | 5 ml/kg 5% glucose solution or carbohydrate-rich drink (CHO Group, n = 18) | Fasting (GS Group, n = 18) | gastric emptying time (antral CSA and gastric fluid volume), thirst and hunger |
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7 | Huang (2020)15 | RCT | 351 | oral glucose water (10 g of glucose in 100 ml of warm water, 5 ml/kg). 2 hour group (174) vs 1 hour group (170) | Volume of gastric content, preoperative blood glucose, Distribution of gastric volume and pH Pre- and intraoperative adverse reactions |
| |
8 | Carvalho (2020)10 | RCT | 40 | 12.5% maltodextrin diluted in 150 mL of water (CHO Group, n = 19) | Fasting (Fasting Group, n = 21) | Albumin, IL-6, blood glucose, insulin, CRP, Insulin resistance with HOMA-IR Index |
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9 | Bharadwaj (2021)11 | RCT | 101 | 5 mL/kg Body Weight (BW) of pulp-free clear apple juice (Tropicana (100 mL pack)-containing 12% sugar, Tropicana Products, Inc., division of PepsiCo, Inc., Chicago, USA), 2 hours prior to induction of anaesthesia (Study Group, n = 50) | Standard ASA fasting guidelines (6-4-2 regimen) (Control Group, n = 51) | Preoperative and postoperative of UMSS and behavior score. child parent separation score and mask acceptance score. Time to attain MAS, to ask for oral intake and time for attaining the discharge criteria. Random blood sugar with 2 minutes interval in 51 minute |
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10 | Balasubramaniam (2018)12 | RCT | 120 | 2 ml per kg of body weight of 10% Dextrose water as oral feeds half hour before the expected time of start of anaesthesia (Group B, n = 60) | fasting according to ASA guidelines preoperatively (Group A, n = 60) | Preoperative blood sugar, hypoglycemia |
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11 | Bauer (2024)18 | RCT | 62 | 10 fluid ounces, 50 g carbohydrate, 0 g protein, 0 g fat, 200 total calories (Ensure Pre-Surgery®) 2 h before surgery | standard eight hours NPO | LOS, time to first bowel movement, emesis event, Suppository/enema administration, flatus return at 12 h, nausea at 24 h, other perioperative complications |
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The research on PCL demonstrates its significant impact on stabilizing blood glucose levels and enhancing metabolic control before pediatric surgery. In studies comparing carbohydrate-loaded patients with those in control or fasting groups, those who received carbohydrates generally had higher, yet stable, blood glucose levels. For example, patients in the carbohydrate group showed a median blood glucose level of 5.4 mmol/L, which was slightly higher than that of the placebo group. This suggests that PCL helps maintain energy reserves during the perioperative period, reducing the risk of hypoglycemia and providing metabolic benefits.8 Additionally, carbohydrate-loaded patients exhibited fewer abnormal ketone levels, indicating better overall metabolic stability, although a slight increase in lactate levels was noted. These findings underscore the potential of PCL to enhance patient outcomes by ensuring more consistent blood glucose levels before surgery.9
Further research supports these benefits by showing that PCL not only stabilizes blood glucose levels but also reduces the likelihood of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. In one study, fasting patients were more prone to hyperglycemia, with 21% exceeding 99 mg/dL, while none of the patients in the carbohydrate group experienced hyperglycemia. Both groups had similar insulin levels and Homeostatic Model Assessment for IR (HOMA-IR) Index data before and after the operation, indicating that carbohydrate loading helps prevent hyperglycemia without affecting insulin resistance.10 Another study found significantly lower random blood sugar levels in the carbohydrate group compared to the control group, where higher glucose levels were trending. This suggests that carbohydrate loading effectively prevents the sharp fluctuations in blood glucose that can pose risks during surgery.11 Moreover, the fasting group was found to experience more frequent signs of hypoglycemia, such as excessive crying, sweating, and irritability, highlighting the discomfort and potential risks associated with fasting.12 Overall, the evidence points to PCL as a valuable strategy for improving preoperative care by maintaining blood glucose stability, reducing metabolic risks, and enhancing patient comfort.
The studies collectively highlight the positive impact of PCL and varying fasting durations on reducing perioperative anxiety, agitation, and crying in pediatric patients. One study found that children who received PCL were significantly calmer, with 90% being quiet and relaxed compared to only 11.7% in a control group, indicating a notable decrease in postoperative agitation.13 Another investigation showed that preoperative anxiety levels were markedly lower in children who consumed carbohydrate fluids, as measured by the modified Yale Preoperative Anxiety Scale (m-YPAS), compared to those who fasted.14 While one randomized clinical trial found no significant differences in behavior scores, separation anxiety, or mask acceptance between PCL and fasting groups, other research demonstrated that PCL significantly reduced preoperative crying, likely due to its ability to alleviate thirst and hunger. This reduction in crying not only conserves energy but also prevents gastrointestinal flatulence, which can interfere with surgical procedures.9,11 Additionally, a comparison of fasting durations revealed that a 1-hour fasting period resulted in fewer instances of crying than a 2-hour fast, supporting the effectiveness of shorter fasting intervals combined with PCL.15 Overall, the studies emphasize the benefits of PCL in minimizing anxiety, agitation, and crying, thereby improving the preoperative experience for pediatric patients.
The studies provide a comprehensive analysis of how PCL and different fasting durations impact gastric content, gastric emptying, and the associated risks of pulmonary aspiration. Significant differences were observed in antral cross-sectional area (CSA) and gastric residual volume (GRV) between groups, with both PCL and water intake leading to reduced gastric content compared to fasting.14 This reduction is further emphasized by findings that PCL led to a 68% decrease in gastric content compared to fasting, highlighting its effectiveness in minimizing gastric volume.16 Temporal changes in antral CSA indicate that PCL causes a significant increase within the first 10 minutes post-ingestion, which then returns to baseline by 90 minutes, underscoring the importance of timing in PCL administration.17
In terms of safety, administering PCL at doses up to 10 mL/kg does not increase gastric residuals in adults, children, or infants, thereby reducing the risk of regurgitation and aspiration. The absence of significant gastric residuals across these groups suggests that PCL is well-tolerated and does not compromise gastric emptying.9 Additionally, a comparison of fasting durations reveals that a 1-hour fast results in lower gastric content volume than a 2-hour fast, without increasing the risk of low gastric pH or the simultaneous presence of large gastric volumes and low pH, which are key factors in pulmonary aspiration risk.15 Collectively, these studies underscore the efficacy and safety of PCL in reducing gastric content and improving patient outcomes by lowering the risk of aspiration during surgery.
PCL indicate that it generally does not lead to significant postoperative complications compared to fasting or placebo groups. For instance, the incidence of nausea, vomiting, and pain were similar between groups, with no significant differences observed in postoperative anti-emetic use or pain severity. In one study, children who received carbohydrates were more likely to experience severe nausea in the first postoperative hour, but this difference did not persist beyond that time. Additionally, there was no difference in the time taken to meet discharge criteria between those who received carbohydrates and those who did not.8,11,12,18
Other studies reported no complications during the study period, and PCL was associated with reduced incidences of crying, thirst, and hypoxia compared to longer fasting durations. Moreover, no adverse reactions such as pulmonary aspirations, heart failure, or severe hunger were observed in the groups receiving carbohydrates.15,17 These findings suggest that PCL is generally safe and does not increase the risk of postoperative complications, while it may offer some benefits in reducing discomfort after surgery.
The study results indicate that PCL has a potential impact on the length of stay (LOS) in a hospital setting. One study found a significant reduction in the median LOS for children in the carbohydrate group (135 minutes) compared to the placebo group (161 minutes), suggesting that carbohydrate loading may enhance postoperative recovery and reduce hospital stay. However, the clinical relevance of this 26-minute reduction is debatable, and the study suggests that maintaining adequate hydration alone, regardless of carbohydrate intake, could improve postoperative recovery. It was also noted that the effect was more pronounced in morning surgeries, potentially influencing future clinical guidelines for preoperative hydration.8 Another study, however, found no significant difference in the length of hospital stay between groups receiving PCL and those who did not.9,18 The studies consistently show no clinically meaningful difference in the LOS between groups receiving PCL and those who did not, highlighting the need for further research to better understand the factors influencing LOS and the role of PCL in pediatric surgical recovery.
The American Society of Anaesthesiology (ASA) guideline emphasizes the importance of adhering to recommended fasting durations to avoid adverse patient and clinical outcomes. Prolonged fasting, whether due to unclear or extended fasting policies, can increase preoperative thirst, hunger, anxiety, and discomfort, as well as lead to dehydration and hypotension during anesthesia induction. Although recent European and Canadian guidelines suggest reducing clear liquid fasting to 1 hour in children, the ASA task force refrains from making a strong recommendation due to limited and low-quality evidence.19–22
In this context, PCL appears to be a promising intervention to address certain challenges in pediatric populations. The findings from this scoping review suggest that PCL may offer several benefits, such as reducing metabolic risks and improving perioperative outcomes. However, the impact of PCL on blood glucose levels is inconsistent. While some studies showed that PCL helps maintain stable blood glucose levels and reduces the risk of hypoglycemia during the perioperative period, others reported lower glucose levels in children receiving PCL. This metabolic stability, when achieved, is crucial for pediatric patients, helping to preserve energy reserves and potentially supporting better recovery outcomes.
However, the review also highlighted variability in outcomes such as LOS and the incidence of postoperative complications. While some studies reported a significant reduction in LOS for patients receiving PCL, others found no significant differences between the PCL and control groups. This inconsistency suggests that the effectiveness of PCL may be influenced by factors like the timing of surgery, the type of surgical procedure, and individual patient characteristics.
Moreover, although PCL generally did not increase the risk of postoperative complications, the extent of its benefits varied across different studies. Some studies reported reductions in postoperative complications such as nausea, vomiting, and pain, while others did not. These mixed results highlight the need for further research to better understand the specific conditions under which PCL provides the most benefit.
In evaluating the risk of bias among the included studies, we found that four studies had a low risk, five studies had some concerns, and one study had a high risk. This variability in study quality may partially explain the inconsistent findings related to PCL outcomes, such as the LOS and the incidence of postoperative complications. While some studies reported significant benefits from PCL, others did not, indicating that the effectiveness of PCL might be influenced by factors like surgical timing, procedure type, and patient characteristics.
A recent meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials involving 1,279 pediatric patients found that PCL significantly reduced postoperative nausea and vomiting and improved intraoperative sedation scores. However, no significant differences were observed in postoperative blood glucose levels or residual gastric volume, suggesting variability in the clinical benefits of PCL. These inconsistencies likely stem from differences in study design, patient characteristics, and intervention protocols. Limitations such as small sample sizes, inconsistent CHO administration times and doses, variations in surgery types, and inadequate blinding also raise concerns about the reliability of the pooled results. The overall methodological quality of the studies, with several showing moderate to high risk of bias, underscores the need for caution when interpreting these findings.23
This scoping review has limitations, including potential language bias, as only articles published in English were considered. The search strategy may have missed relevant studies due to variations in terminology or publication practices. Data extraction could be subject to reviewer bias, and the reporting of outcomes might vary across studies, leading to inconsistencies. Additionally, publication bias may exist, as studies with positive findings are more likely to be published than those with negative or inconclusive results. Lastly, selection bias could affect the generalizability of the findings, as included studies may not represent the broader pediatric population undergoing surgery.
Future research should prioritize optimizing PCL protocols and evaluating its effects across a wider range of surgical procedures, particularly in pediatric populations where evidence is limited. Identifying the optimal timing, dosage, and composition of PCL is crucial to maximize its benefits. Additionally, advanced metabolic indicators such as insulin levels, HOMA-IR, blood analysis, and inflammatory biomarkers like IL-6 have been inadequately explored in current studies. Addressing these gaps will help refine preoperative care and improve patient outcomes by reducing the adverse effects of prolonged fasting. High-quality, well-powered randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with standardized protocols, consistent outcome measures, and rigorous blinding are essential to produce reliable conclusions. A comprehensive, registered systematic review process with a broader search strategy and standardized inclusion criteria will also enhance the evidence base. Until these gaps are addressed, conducting a high-quality systematic review and meta-analysis may be premature, as the current evidence lacks the rigor necessary for definitive conclusions.
PCL in pediatric surgery may stabilize blood glucose, reduce metabolic risks, improve recovery, and minimize postoperative complications. However, evidence on safety and outcomes, such as hospital stay length and postoperative complications, remains inconsistent, highlighting the need for further research to refine PCL protocols for pediatric care.
Open Science Framework: Preoperative Carbohydrate Loading in Pediatric Surgery: A Scoping Review of Current Evidence, DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/KPNV5.24
This project contains the following extended data: truncated search results from various databases and a full electronic search strategy for at least one database including any limits used.
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication).
Open Science Framework: Preoperative Carbohydrate Loading in Pediatric Surgery: A Scoping Review of Current Evidence, DOI: https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/KPNV5.24
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero “No rights reserved” data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication).
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Are the rationale for, and objectives of, the Systematic Review clearly stated?
Yes
Are sufficient details of the methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Partly
Is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
No
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results presented in the review?
Yes
If this is a Living Systematic Review, is the ‘living’ method appropriate and is the search schedule clearly defined and justified? (‘Living Systematic Review’ or a variation of this term should be included in the title.)
Not applicable
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Ultrasound guided Regional Anaesthesia; Perioperative Care, Simulation, Obstetric anaesthesia.
Are the rationale for, and objectives of, the Systematic Review clearly stated?
Yes
Are sufficient details of the methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Partly
Is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results presented in the review?
Partly
If this is a Living Systematic Review, is the ‘living’ method appropriate and is the search schedule clearly defined and justified? (‘Living Systematic Review’ or a variation of this term should be included in the title.)
Not applicable
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Pediatric and cardiac anesthesia.
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Vibhavari Naik - oncoanaesthesia, paediatric anaesthesia, vascular access; Abhijit Nair - statistics and research methodology, systematic reviews
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Vibhavari Naik - oncoanaesthesia, paediatric anaesthesia, vascular access; Abhijit Nair - statistics and research methodology, systematic reviews
Are the rationale for, and objectives of, the Systematic Review clearly stated?
Yes
Are sufficient details of the methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Partly
Is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Partly
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results presented in the review?
No
If this is a Living Systematic Review, is the ‘living’ method appropriate and is the search schedule clearly defined and justified? (‘Living Systematic Review’ or a variation of this term should be included in the title.)
Not applicable
References
1. Carvalho CALB, Carvalho AA, Preza ADG, Nogueira PLB, et al.: Metabolic and Inflammatory Benefits of Reducing Preoperative Fasting Time in Pediatric Surgery.Rev Col Bras Cir. 2020; 47: e20202353 PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full TextCompeting Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Vibhavari Naik - oncoanaesthesia, paediatric anaesthesia, vascular access; Abhijit Nair - statistics and research methodology, systematic reviews
Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:
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