Renewable energy: A way out for South Sudan’s electricity crisis

Aban Ayik; Nelson Ijumba

doi:10.12688/f1000research.157192.2

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Policy Brief

Revised

Renewable energy: A way out for South Sudan’s electricity crisis

[version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]

Aban Ayik ^1,2, Nelson Ijumba^2,3

PUBLISHED 31 Mar 2025

Author details Author details

¹ School of Engineering, University of Juba, Juba, South Sudan
² African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda
³ School of Engineering, University of KwaZulu, Natal, South Africa

Aban Ayik
Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation

Nelson Ijumba
Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing

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Abstract

South Sudan is one of the least electrified countries in the world, despite having abundant renewable energy resources that could be exploited to generate electricity. The country relies on imported diesel for electricity generation, besides having limited focus on renewable energy development. This policy brief sheds light on the potential of renewable energy as a solution to South Sudan’s ongoing electricity crisis. It examines the key factors hindering the development of renewable energy resources for electricity generation in the country. The brief also provides recommendations to the Government of South Sudan, policymakers, experts, and funding institutions on how to improve electricity access in the country. It is stressing on the importance of prioritising the development of diverse renewable energy resources, such as solar, wind, and small hydropower, as an immediate solution to the electricity access challenges in the country.

Keywords

Electricity access, renewable energy, policy recommendations, strategic plan, South Sudan.

Corresponding author: Aban Ayik

Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Grant information: The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.

Copyright: © 2025 Ayik A and Ijumba N. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

How to cite: Ayik A and Ijumba N. Renewable energy: A way out for South Sudan’s electricity crisis [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. F1000Research 2025, 13:1267 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157192.2) First published: 23 Oct 2024, 13:1267 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157192.1) Latest published: 31 Mar 2025, 13:1267 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157192.2)

Revised Amendments from Version 1

In Version 2 of the article, the comments from reviewers 1 and 2 have been addressed. New paragraphs and text have been added to the article to provide additional information for clarity. Additionally, a few references have been added to the reference list.

See the authors' detailed response to the review by Barnaby Joseph Dye
See the authors' detailed response to the review by Taco Niet

Introduction

South Sudan became independent in 2011 after a 21-year civil war that ended in 2005. From 2005 until independence, South Sudan was autonomous and organizations such as the World Bank and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) were actively involved in development projects since that period. The country has also experienced internal conflicts after independence, particularly in 2013 and 2016. The civil war and internal conflicts contributed to damaging the country’s infrastructure, including its electricity infrastructure, and delayed various development projects.¹

South Sudan has a low population density, estimated at 13 people per km² in 2009, with more than 80% of the population living in rural areas, where they rely on fire wood for their energy needs.² This low population density has made it difficult to develop infrastructure and provide essential services efficiently, as the scattered population increases costs and reduces economic viability.²

The electricity sector in South Sudan is underdeveloped. The exact number of people with access to reliable electricity is unknown due to a lack of official data. However, organizations such as the World Bank and IRENA estimated that in 2023, the percentage of the population with access to reliable electricity was between 5.4% and 8.4%.²^,³ Although South Sudan is rich in oil, it has no operational oil refineries and it depends on imported diesel for electricity generation. The current operational thermal power plants are mainly located in the capital city, Juba. In addition, there is no national electric grid to transmit the electricity generated in and around Juba to other parts of the country. The Government has been planning to improve the electricity access in South Sudan by building a national transmission network in addition to constructing a large hydropower plant.⁴ However, government reports indicate that most of these plans have not succeeded, mainly due to financial constraints.

A number of studies have shown that South Sudan has abundant renewable energy resources that can be exploited to generate electricity for almost the entire country.⁵^–⁷ However, renewable electricity remains negligible in the power generation mix in South Sudan. Countries in the region such as Rwanda, Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda are already improving their electricity access by using on-grid and off-grid renewable energy solutions such as solar, wind, and hydropower. So, what is preventing South Sudan from similarly unlocking its local renewable energy potential to improve its electricity access?

The aim of this policy brief is to examine the key factors delaying the development of renewable energy in South Sudan and to propose recommendations for improvement through exploitation of renewable energy resources.

Policy outcomes and implications

a) Available renewable energy capacity
Figure 1(a-c) shows the solar, wind and small hydropower potentials of South Sudan. Solar energy is the most abundant renewable resource throughout the country. Many locations receive annual global irradiation above 5.0 kWh/m², making it feasible for the development of large-scale solar power plants. Wind potential is generally low in the country, but there are areas where the annual average wind speed reaches 5.08 m/s at a height of 10 meters,⁸ and therefore small wind turbines could be developed there. There are about 82 potential small hydropower sites along the White Nile and Kaya rivers, in the southern parts of South Sudan, which can produce a total output power of 165.69 MW.⁹
b) Factors limiting renewable energy uptake in South Sudan
The following were identified as contributing factors to the poor uptake of renewable energy in South Sudan:
- i. Limited focus on renewable energy resources in South Sudan’s Strategic and National Development Plans
  In South Sudan’s Vision 2040, renewable energy resources are not prioritised. Vision 2040 only highlights hydropower development as a strategic priority, with no mention of other renewable energy resources. In 2013, the World Bank recommended that South Sudan develop mini hydropower sites as a quick solution to improve electricity access while waiting for large hydropower projects, which are expected to take considerable time to be commissioned.¹⁰
  In the Revised National Development Strategy (R-NDS) 2021-2024,⁴ which is the current national development plan anticipated to guide South Sudan’s economic growth, it is stated that the country will invest in renewable energy, specifically large hydropower. The Fula hydropower project (1080 MW) was prioritised and allocated funding, and construction was scheduled to begin in 2022 and is expected to take 10 years to complete. However, work has not yet begun due to financial constraints.
- ii. Reliance on imported electricity from neighbouring countries
  Authorities in South Sudan have been focusing on importing electricity from neighbouring countries since 2011, although importing electricity is not a strategic priority in South Sudan’s national development plans. Electricity has been supplied to Renk, a county in the northern part of South Sudan, from Sudan since 2007 and continued after the country’s independence in 2011.¹¹ Since 2011, South Sudan has been importing 40 MW of electricity in bulk through the interconnection with Sudan for use in Renk town as well as Malakal town, which is more than 300 km South of Renk, and the areas along Renk-Malakal road.¹¹ The imported electricity was expected to reach 140 MW by 2016 as it was anticipated to be transmitted to other towns nearby Malakal. However, the transmission line from Renk to Malakal has not been built and the distribution network has not been rehabilitated or extended as planned resulting in low demand. Thus, as of 2022, Renk was using only 5% of the imported electricity and South Sudan was still paying for the unused electricity.¹²^,¹³ Additionally, since 2013, there have also been plans to import electricity from Ethiopia, which continue to this day.^10,14 New plans include importing electricity from Uganda to provide power to towns at the border between Uganda and South Sudan.
- iii. Lack of an independent regulatory authority
  The South Sudan National Electricity Bill 2015 was developed to establish an autonomous electricity regulatory body to oversee “generation, transmission, bulk supply, distribution, supply, export, import, and operation of electricity, along with related matters”¹⁵ in South Sudan. One of the main objectives of the Bill is the promotion of renewable energy in the country. However, up to date, the Bill remains inactive. Currently, the Southern Sudan Electricity Corporation Act, 2011, is the primary law governing the electricity sector in South Sudan. In the 2011 Act, there is no clear distinction between the roles of the government as operator, regulator, and policy maker. Also, the 2011 Act does not mention anything about supporting renewable energy in the country.
- iv. Lack of private sector investment
  South Sudan Vision 2040 and the R-NDS recognize the role of the private sector in contributing to achieving economic growth and sustainable development in the country and the need for regulation to encourage their participation. Also, the 2015 Electricity Bill encourages private sector participation in the electricity market in South Sudan. However, there is lack of clear framework and incentives for private sector investment in renewable energy or electricity sector in the country.
- v. Peace and stability
  South Sudan has a long history of war and internal conflicts both before and after independence. Since 2018, the country has been relatively peaceful, allowing for the implementing various projects, such as the rehabilitation and extension of Juba distribution lines, several road projects, and others.
  Renewable energy projects generally have longer payback periods compared to thermal or diesel power plant projects. The payback period is the time required to recover the funds invested in the project. One of the most important factors in attracting investment in long term infrastructure projects, such as renewable energy projects, is ensuring that nothing interrupts the project implementation before it exceeds its payback period and starts generating profits. Therefore, investors need guarantees, through the political environment in the country, that South Sudan will remain peaceful and politically stable to encourage both local and foreign investment. The country must be stable, especially in locations anticipated for development.
c) Implications
- i. Lack of clear policy priorities: Without clear goals and policy priorities for the development of renewable energy resources outlined in South Sudan’s long-term and medium-term plans, authorities may not be able to allocate resources or create necessary regulations and incentives to encourage their development.
- ii. Unsustainability of electricity imports: Importing electricity from neighbouring countries may not be sustainable because electricity can be interrupted by different geopolitical factors. Additionally, South Sudan may end up paying for electricity it does not use.
- iii. Challenges with large hydropower development: Although hydropower is a renewable energy resource, it faces significant environmental challenges, schedule and cost overruns, in addition to issues related to displacing and resettling people.
- iv. Conflict of interest and poor safety standards: Lack of a regulatory body can create an environment of lack of fairness and accountability, monopoly, corruption, conflict of interest, and poor safety standards. This can harm the public and the environment, discourage investors, and limit participation for investing in renewable energy projects.
- v. Dependence on public funding and foreign loans: As public funds alone are not enough to finance infrastructure projects, the lack of private sector investment may lead to limited investments and reliance on loans. As loans are paid back with interest, excessive loans can strain the national budget and create many economic problems which can increase the risk of renewable energy projects failure.
- vi. Higher investment risks: Lack of peace and stability in South Sudan may lead to higher investment risks which can discourage both local and international investors to invest in renewable energy projects.

Figure 1. (a-c): Solar, wind, and small hydropower potential of South Sudan (sources: Global Solar and Wind Atlases and Ref. 9).

Actionable recommendations

The following are actionable recommendations for the Government of South Sudan, policy makers, experts, and regional and international institutions that support development projects in the country:

i. Prioritise the development of diverse renewable energy resources in future development plans for South Sudan
South Sudan has diverse renewable energy resources that can be used to generate electricity. While some locations lack large hydropower potential, they have abundant solar resources, along with potential for small wind turbines, biogas, and small and mini hydropower development. These technologies offer relatively lower capital cost compared to large hydropower projects. Also, some locations in the country have potential for the development of power from biomass and geothermal resources. Therefore, policy makers should prioritise, in the country’s future development plans, the exploration, assessment and development of other renewable energy resources beyond large hydropower in the country’s future development plans.
ii. Prioritise developing a phased plan to build a national transmission and distribution network
Building an electricity transmission network across a country, though costly, is essential for enabling increased access to electrical energy. Therefore, policy makers and experts should develop a comprehensive network construction plan that can be implemented in manageable phases. Regional and international financial institutions should prioritise funding such a project through grants and loans. Additionally, the government can look into partnership with the private sector.
iii. Prioritise the establishment of an electricity regulatory authority
To achieve sustainable energy goals, countries should establish institutions with clear policies and regulations to attract investments and grow their energy sectors, especially the renewable energy sector.¹⁶ Therefore, South Sudan authorities and policy makers should prioritise the establishment of an autonomous South Sudan National Electricity Regulatory Authority. The authority is expected to be autonomous, while implementing government policies and regulations and managed by technical experts rather than by politically appointed individuals. This will ensure a clear separation of roles between the regulator and policymaker. It will also promote transparency and fairness, high safety standards, and encourage companies to invest in the electricity sector in the country, particularly the renewable energy sector.
iv. Invest in mini-grids and off-grid solar energy projects
It would not be possible for the national transmission grid to cover the whole country due to costs, low population density, and physical terrain considerations. Therefore, there would still be a need for investing in mini-grid and off-grid systems, particularly in rural and remote areas, where the majority of the population lives. Since solar energy potential is high throughout South Sudan, solar energy-based mini-grids and off-grid systems can offer viable solutions to improve electricity access in these locations.
v. Incentivising investors and private energy property developers
To attract investors and private companies it is essential to make investments in renewable energy projects attractive. This is possible by providing grants and tax incentives, as well as simplifying regulations for investing in such projects.
vi. Conduct thorough techno-economic studies on importing electricity to South Sudan
One of the benefits of the East African Community (EAC) regional integration is the sharing of energy resources through interconnections, where countries with excess electricity export to countries with lower capacity or higher demand. South Sudan can benefit from importing electricity from neighbouring countries to improve electricity access. However, it is important for South Sudan to first prioritize the development of its national transmission and distribution networks before planning to import electricity to ensure it can effectively transmit and distribute the imported electricity. Additionally, it is imperative to conduct in-depth techno-economic studies to assess the feasibility of importing electricity from neighbouring countries versus developing local renewable energy resources. It is also important to study the possibility of building transmission lines which support bidirectional power flow for potential future electricity trade with the region.

Ethics and consent

Ethical approval and consent were not required.

Data availability

No data are associated with this article.

References

1. World Bank Group: South Sudan Overview: Development news, research, data|World Bank.2024. (accessed Mar. 06, 2025).Reference Source
2. IEA, IRENA, UNSD, World Bank, WHO: Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Tracking Report.2024. Reference Source
3. World Bank Group: Access to electricity (% of population) - South Sudan|Data.2022. Reference Source
4. GRSS and UNDP: Revised National Development Strategy 2021–2024: Consolidate peace and stabilize the economy. Juba: 2021.
5. Ayik A, Ijumba N, Kabiri C, et al.: Techno-Economic Modeling of Stand-Alone Solar Photovoltaic Systems: A Case Scenario from South Sudan. SAIEE Africa Res. J. 2024; 115(2): 55–68. Publisher Full Text
6. Ayik A, Ijumba N, Kabiri C, et al.: Estimation of Solar Resource Potential in South Sudan Using Heliosat-4 Method. In 2018 IEEE PES Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC). Oct. 2018; vol. 2018-Octob, pp. 487–492. Publisher Full Text
7. Gudo AJA, Belete M, Abubakar GA, et al.: Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Solar Energy Potential for Domestic and Agricultural Utilization to Diminish Poverty in Jubek State, South Sudan, Africa. Energies. 2020; 13(1399). Publisher Full Text
8. Ayik A, Ijumba N, Kabiri C, et al.: Preliminary wind resource assessment in South Sudan using reanalysis data and statistical methods. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. Mar. 2021; 138: 110621. Publisher Full Text
9. Ayik A, Ijumba N, Kabiri C, et al.: Preliminary assessment of small hydropower potential using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool model: A case study of Central Equatoria State, South Sudan. Energy Rep. Dec. 2023; 9: 2229–2246. Publisher Full Text
10. The World Bank: Republic of South Sudan: Electricity Sector Strategy Note for South Sudan.2013.
11. Ministry of Electricity and Dams (South Sudan)United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): The Republic of South Sudan Sustainable Energy for All Rapid Situation Assessment and Gap Analysis Report.2013.
12. Eye Radio: Renk assures willing investors of stable power supply.2022. (accessed Jul. 02, 2024). Reference Source
13. Ahmed D: Struggles for Electrical Power Supply in Sudan and South Sudan. in Fifth International Conference On Advances in Economics, Management and Social Study - EMS 2016. Mar. 2016; no. 1: pp. 40–46. Publisher Full Text
14. The East African: South Sudan signs up for Ethiopia Dam power.2022. (accessed Jul. 02, 2024). Reference Source
15. South Sudan National Electricity Bill. Juba, South Sudan: Ministry of Justice; 2015.
16. Drago C, Gatto A: Policy, regulation effectiveness, and sustainability in the energy sector: A worldwide interval-based composite indicator. Energy Policy. 2022; 167: 112889. Publisher Full Text

Comments on this article Comments (0)

Version 2

VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 23 Oct 2024

Author details Author details

Aban Ayik
Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation

Nelson Ijumba
Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Competing interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

Grant information

The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.

Article Versions (2)

version 2

Revised

Published: 31 Mar 2025, 13:1267

https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157192.2

version 1

Published: 23 Oct 2024, 13:1267

https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157192.1

© 2025 Ayik A and Ijumba N. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Ayik A and Ijumba N. Renewable energy: A way out for South Sudan’s electricity crisis [version 2; peer review: 1 approved, 1 approved with reservations]. F1000Research 2025, 13:1267 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.157192.2)

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Open Peer Review

Version 2

VERSION 2

PUBLISHED 31 Mar 2025

Revised

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Reviewer Report 29 May 2025

Barnaby Joseph Dye, King's College London, London, England, UK

Approved

https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.179401.r374555

I welcome the authors' attempts to engage in the reviews and make some substantial changes. I would still want further engagement with the politics of the subject matter and the policies discussed, and the dynamics of conflict which affect the ability to plan and deliver electricity in South Sudan, shaping the politics of what is generated, by what technology, where and delivered to whom. However, I understand that limits of what the authors are able to achieve here and the article provides a useful overview as well as technical details.

Policy Outcomes and Implications - Point V:
Is Political prioritization a factor/the ideology of those in power/ their priorities
Also do they have ability to mobilize resources – do those in power control enough of the state and the country for a renewable energy policy to be enacted – is there enough political agreement across different parties. I wouldn’t expect this to be answered in depth, but a suggestion of these political factors would be welcome.

Challenges with Hydropower Development - iii - also environmental negatives and economic implications of that?

Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise: Development studies, Africa Studies, Political Economy, The politics of infrastructure and the electricity Sector in Africa

I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard.

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Reviewer Report 02 Apr 2025

Taco Niet, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

Approved with Reservations

https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.179401.r374556

Overall you have addressed most of my points. However, one point remains wrt the energy imported to South Sudan under Factors ii.
1. 40 MW is not a suitable unit for imported electricity. That may be the potential capacity but electricity imports are usually measured in MWh.
2. It is unclear from the paragraph what the specific situation is. Does South Sudan contract for up to 40 MW of capacity (continuously for the entire year) or for a given amount of electricity (in MWh)? Specify what the contract says as these are very different things.
3. The phrasing still says that South Sudan imports electricity that is then not used. The electricity system does not work that way. It is possible that South Sudan pays for up to 40 MW of capacity but is unable to utilize that capacity due to constraints on the system, or does South Sudan contract and pay for up to 40 MWh of electricity each year but is unable to actually import/use it. Clarify.

Also, reference 13 does not link out correctly and goes to a 404 not found. Please update the link.

Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise: Energy Systems, Sustainable Energy, Energy Systems Modelling, Renewable Energy, Energy Storage

I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard, however I have significant reservations, as outlined above.

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PUBLISHED 23 Oct 2024

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Reviewer Report 04 Feb 2025

Taco Niet, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

Approved with Reservations

https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172610.r347920

Summary:
The article presents policy suggestions for South Sudan to expand electricity access. The article argues that large hydro, imports and a dependence on oil are currently the focus in SS but that this should be revised to encourage deploying renewables across the country instead. It also notes challenges building out the electricity grid due to financial constraints.

There are a few issues that I think should be addressed:

The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes it much more challenging to address energy issues and access capital for development of any sort.

There is an implicit assumption that RE deployment will automatically increase electricity access. This hasn't been established in the article and is not necessarily the case. More imports and large power plants can also contribute to access.

You discuss that importing electricity is not sustainable but also recommend continuing regional cooperation. Reducing imports will likely reduce electricity access so hard to justify not continuing imports. Also Recommendation v statements are counter to each other - encourage regional integration but also not. Which is it?

In Factors ii you say imported electricity is not used. This is non-sensical - the grid doesn't work that way. If electricity is imported it is used. Clarify what you mean by this statement.

Current electricity access (2022) is 8.4% https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=SS. But also 5.4% per IRENA's report. Maybe give a range or discuss why the number might vary. This is likely indicative of the issues in SS - lack of infrastructure makes it challenging to accurately assess such numbers. Worth a mention.

Recommendation i - might also discuss the fact that RE development requires smaller quanta of capital compared to large projects so can be easier to get going.

Recommendation iv - Private equity does not show up in the policy issues so why is this a recommendation? Where is the current policy issue with private equity? This again speaks to the lack of context for SS as a country.

Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader?

Partly
Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?

Yes
Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments?

Partly

Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise: Energy Systems, Sustainable Energy, Energy Systems Modelling, Renewable Energy, Energy Storage

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Author Response 31 Mar 2025

Aban Ayik, African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

31 Mar 2025

Author Response
- The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes
... Continue reading
The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes it much more challenging to address energy issues and access capital for development of any sort.

Response: As mentioned previously, the civil war in South Sudan ended 20 years ago. Despite the ongoing internal conflicts, the government has been able to access capital to implement some of its projects including energy projects. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan.

There is an implicit assumption that RE deployment will automatically increase electricity access. This hasn't been established in the article and is not necessarily the case. More imports and large power plants can also contribute to access.

Response: RE deployment has increased electricity access in some countries in the region (Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda). Similarly, we expect it to do the same as studies indicate the availability of renewable energy sources in the country. However, the process is not automatic. Its success depends on the technical and economic feasibility, followed by proper implementation, supportive policies, and financing. Therefore, while large power plants and electricity imports can contribute to increased access, they will take longer to implement especially in the absence of a national grid. Instead, other options such as developing solar power plants, run-of-river small hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, mini-grids or hybrid systems should be considered while larger projects are being developed. This manuscript has been updated to reflect this.

You discuss that importing electricity is not sustainable but also recommend continuing regional cooperation. Reducing imports will likely reduce electricity access so hard to justify not continuing imports. Also Recommendation v statements are counter to each other - encourage regional integration but also not. Which is it?

Response: One of the benefits of the EAC regional integration is sharing of energy resources through interconnections, where countries with excess electricity export to countries with lower capacity or higher demand. So, we do not oppose regional cooperation or importing electricity because that can be beneficial in cases of high demand or for supplying remote border towns. It can also be beneficial if South Sudan plans to export electricity to the region in the future after developing its hydropower resources. However, we believe that prioritising the development of local energy resources will be more beneficial to South Sudan at the current time. South Sudan can prioritize developing its local energy resources while planning to import electricity. This section of the manuscript has been revised for clarity.

In Factors ii you say imported electricity is not used. This is non-sensical - the grid doesn't work that way. If electricity is imported it is used. Clarify what you mean by this statement.

Response: South Sudan has been importing 40 MW of electricity (in bulk) from Sudan for use in Renk and Malakal towns, and the areas along Renk-Malakal road. However, the transmission line from Renk to Malakal has not been built and the distribution network has not been rehabilitated or extended, resulting in South Sudan paying for unused electricity. Due to low demand, Renk has been consuming only a fraction of the imported electricity. This section of the manuscript has been updated for clarity.

Current electricity access (2022) is 8.4% https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=SS. But also 5.4% per IRENA's report. Maybe give a range or discuss why the number might vary. This is likely indicative of the issues in SS - lack of infrastructure makes it challenging to accurately assess such numbers. Worth a mention.

Response: We agree. We have changed the access to a range between 5.4% and 8.4%.

Recommendation I - might also discuss the fact that RE development requires smaller quanta of capital compared to large projects so can be easier to get going.

Response: We agree. This section has been updated.

Recommendation iv - Private equity does not show up in the policy issues so why is this a recommendation? Where is the current policy issue with private equity? This again speaks to the lack of context for SS as a country.

Response: We agree. This has been added.
The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes it much more challenging to address energy issues and access capital for development of any sort.

Response: As mentioned previously, the civil war in South Sudan ended 20 years ago. Despite the ongoing internal conflicts, the government has been able to access capital to implement some of its projects including energy projects. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan.

There is an implicit assumption that RE deployment will automatically increase electricity access. This hasn't been established in the article and is not necessarily the case. More imports and large power plants can also contribute to access.

Response: RE deployment has increased electricity access in some countries in the region (Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda). Similarly, we expect it to do the same as studies indicate the availability of renewable energy sources in the country. However, the process is not automatic. Its success depends on the technical and economic feasibility, followed by proper implementation, supportive policies, and financing. Therefore, while large power plants and electricity imports can contribute to increased access, they will take longer to implement especially in the absence of a national grid. Instead, other options such as developing solar power plants, run-of-river small hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, mini-grids or hybrid systems should be considered while larger projects are being developed. This manuscript has been updated to reflect this.

You discuss that importing electricity is not sustainable but also recommend continuing regional cooperation. Reducing imports will likely reduce electricity access so hard to justify not continuing imports. Also Recommendation v statements are counter to each other - encourage regional integration but also not. Which is it?

Response: One of the benefits of the EAC regional integration is sharing of energy resources through interconnections, where countries with excess electricity export to countries with lower capacity or higher demand. So, we do not oppose regional cooperation or importing electricity because that can be beneficial in cases of high demand or for supplying remote border towns. It can also be beneficial if South Sudan plans to export electricity to the region in the future after developing its hydropower resources. However, we believe that prioritising the development of local energy resources will be more beneficial to South Sudan at the current time. South Sudan can prioritize developing its local energy resources while planning to import electricity. This section of the manuscript has been revised for clarity.

In Factors ii you say imported electricity is not used. This is non-sensical - the grid doesn't work that way. If electricity is imported it is used. Clarify what you mean by this statement.

Response: South Sudan has been importing 40 MW of electricity (in bulk) from Sudan for use in Renk and Malakal towns, and the areas along Renk-Malakal road. However, the transmission line from Renk to Malakal has not been built and the distribution network has not been rehabilitated or extended, resulting in South Sudan paying for unused electricity. Due to low demand, Renk has been consuming only a fraction of the imported electricity. This section of the manuscript has been updated for clarity.

Current electricity access (2022) is 8.4% https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=SS. But also 5.4% per IRENA's report. Maybe give a range or discuss why the number might vary. This is likely indicative of the issues in SS - lack of infrastructure makes it challenging to accurately assess such numbers. Worth a mention.

Response: We agree. We have changed the access to a range between 5.4% and 8.4%.

Recommendation I - might also discuss the fact that RE development requires smaller quanta of capital compared to large projects so can be easier to get going.

Response: We agree. This section has been updated.

Recommendation iv - Private equity does not show up in the policy issues so why is this a recommendation? Where is the current policy issue with private equity? This again speaks to the lack of context for SS as a country.

Response: We agree. This has been added.
Competing Interests: There are no competing interests Close
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COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT

Author Response 31 Mar 2025

Aban Ayik, African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

31 Mar 2025

Author Response
- The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes
... Continue reading
The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes it much more challenging to address energy issues and access capital for development of any sort.

Response: As mentioned previously, the civil war in South Sudan ended 20 years ago. Despite the ongoing internal conflicts, the government has been able to access capital to implement some of its projects including energy projects. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan.

There is an implicit assumption that RE deployment will automatically increase electricity access. This hasn't been established in the article and is not necessarily the case. More imports and large power plants can also contribute to access.

Response: RE deployment has increased electricity access in some countries in the region (Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda). Similarly, we expect it to do the same as studies indicate the availability of renewable energy sources in the country. However, the process is not automatic. Its success depends on the technical and economic feasibility, followed by proper implementation, supportive policies, and financing. Therefore, while large power plants and electricity imports can contribute to increased access, they will take longer to implement especially in the absence of a national grid. Instead, other options such as developing solar power plants, run-of-river small hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, mini-grids or hybrid systems should be considered while larger projects are being developed. This manuscript has been updated to reflect this.

You discuss that importing electricity is not sustainable but also recommend continuing regional cooperation. Reducing imports will likely reduce electricity access so hard to justify not continuing imports. Also Recommendation v statements are counter to each other - encourage regional integration but also not. Which is it?

Response: One of the benefits of the EAC regional integration is sharing of energy resources through interconnections, where countries with excess electricity export to countries with lower capacity or higher demand. So, we do not oppose regional cooperation or importing electricity because that can be beneficial in cases of high demand or for supplying remote border towns. It can also be beneficial if South Sudan plans to export electricity to the region in the future after developing its hydropower resources. However, we believe that prioritising the development of local energy resources will be more beneficial to South Sudan at the current time. South Sudan can prioritize developing its local energy resources while planning to import electricity. This section of the manuscript has been revised for clarity.

In Factors ii you say imported electricity is not used. This is non-sensical - the grid doesn't work that way. If electricity is imported it is used. Clarify what you mean by this statement.

Response: South Sudan has been importing 40 MW of electricity (in bulk) from Sudan for use in Renk and Malakal towns, and the areas along Renk-Malakal road. However, the transmission line from Renk to Malakal has not been built and the distribution network has not been rehabilitated or extended, resulting in South Sudan paying for unused electricity. Due to low demand, Renk has been consuming only a fraction of the imported electricity. This section of the manuscript has been updated for clarity.

Current electricity access (2022) is 8.4% https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=SS. But also 5.4% per IRENA's report. Maybe give a range or discuss why the number might vary. This is likely indicative of the issues in SS - lack of infrastructure makes it challenging to accurately assess such numbers. Worth a mention.

Response: We agree. We have changed the access to a range between 5.4% and 8.4%.

Recommendation I - might also discuss the fact that RE development requires smaller quanta of capital compared to large projects so can be easier to get going.

Response: We agree. This section has been updated.

Recommendation iv - Private equity does not show up in the policy issues so why is this a recommendation? Where is the current policy issue with private equity? This again speaks to the lack of context for SS as a country.

Response: We agree. This has been added.
The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes it much more challenging to address energy issues and access capital for development of any sort.

Response: As mentioned previously, the civil war in South Sudan ended 20 years ago. Despite the ongoing internal conflicts, the government has been able to access capital to implement some of its projects including energy projects. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan.

There is an implicit assumption that RE deployment will automatically increase electricity access. This hasn't been established in the article and is not necessarily the case. More imports and large power plants can also contribute to access.

Response: RE deployment has increased electricity access in some countries in the region (Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda). Similarly, we expect it to do the same as studies indicate the availability of renewable energy sources in the country. However, the process is not automatic. Its success depends on the technical and economic feasibility, followed by proper implementation, supportive policies, and financing. Therefore, while large power plants and electricity imports can contribute to increased access, they will take longer to implement especially in the absence of a national grid. Instead, other options such as developing solar power plants, run-of-river small hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, mini-grids or hybrid systems should be considered while larger projects are being developed. This manuscript has been updated to reflect this.

You discuss that importing electricity is not sustainable but also recommend continuing regional cooperation. Reducing imports will likely reduce electricity access so hard to justify not continuing imports. Also Recommendation v statements are counter to each other - encourage regional integration but also not. Which is it?

Response: One of the benefits of the EAC regional integration is sharing of energy resources through interconnections, where countries with excess electricity export to countries with lower capacity or higher demand. So, we do not oppose regional cooperation or importing electricity because that can be beneficial in cases of high demand or for supplying remote border towns. It can also be beneficial if South Sudan plans to export electricity to the region in the future after developing its hydropower resources. However, we believe that prioritising the development of local energy resources will be more beneficial to South Sudan at the current time. South Sudan can prioritize developing its local energy resources while planning to import electricity. This section of the manuscript has been revised for clarity.

In Factors ii you say imported electricity is not used. This is non-sensical - the grid doesn't work that way. If electricity is imported it is used. Clarify what you mean by this statement.

Response: South Sudan has been importing 40 MW of electricity (in bulk) from Sudan for use in Renk and Malakal towns, and the areas along Renk-Malakal road. However, the transmission line from Renk to Malakal has not been built and the distribution network has not been rehabilitated or extended, resulting in South Sudan paying for unused electricity. Due to low demand, Renk has been consuming only a fraction of the imported electricity. This section of the manuscript has been updated for clarity.

Current electricity access (2022) is 8.4% https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=SS. But also 5.4% per IRENA's report. Maybe give a range or discuss why the number might vary. This is likely indicative of the issues in SS - lack of infrastructure makes it challenging to accurately assess such numbers. Worth a mention.

Response: We agree. We have changed the access to a range between 5.4% and 8.4%.

Recommendation I - might also discuss the fact that RE development requires smaller quanta of capital compared to large projects so can be easier to get going.

Response: We agree. This section has been updated.

Recommendation iv - Private equity does not show up in the policy issues so why is this a recommendation? Where is the current policy issue with private equity? This again speaks to the lack of context for SS as a country.

Response: We agree. This has been added.
Competing Interests: There are no competing interests Close
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Views

Reviewer Report 08 Nov 2024

Barnaby Joseph Dye, King's College London, London, England, UK

Approved with Reservations

https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.172610.r334853

The construction of the problem – detail of what is possible and the negative implications of the present context are well made. The text is clearly articulated and the maps useful

The word ‘Delay’ – assumes

The construction of the problem – detail of what is possible and the negative implications of the present context are well made. The text is clearly articulated and the maps useful

The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable
- Are there interest groups set against?
- The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower
The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt
- The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays
This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots
- I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc
- At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure
I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here

Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader?

Partly
Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?

Yes
Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments?

Partly

Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise: Development studies, Africa Studies, Political Economy, The politics of infrastructure and the electricity Sector in Africa

CITE

Report a concern

Author Response 31 Mar 2025

Aban Ayik, African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

31 Mar 2025

Author Response
- The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable
- We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.
... Continue reading
The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable

We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.

Are there interest groups set against?

No

The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower

Yes, Vision 2040 supports hydropower (size not specified) but the government has mainly focused on large hydropower.

The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt.

Yes, the focus on large hydropower in South Sudan was indeed inherited from Sudan. In fact, almost all available environmental studies on hydropower projects in South Sudan were conducted before South Sudan’s independence.

The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays

We appreciate the acknowledgment.

This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots

We agree. We also believe that the lack of a clear vision for the future development of electricity in the country is one of the main constraints.

I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc.

While diesel is also used for generating electricity, it is not the only reason for fuel imports in South Sudan. Imported fuel is also used for transportation (cars, buses, and tracks). Currently many government offices and some residents in Juba are using electricity from the Juba Electricity Distribution Company (JEDCO). So the demand for generators is not that strong as before.

At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure.

We agree. For example, there is no independent regulatory authority in South Sudan, and the government acts as a policymaker, regulator, and operator. This makes it difficult to maintain a stable and transparent environment for investment, which discourages investment in the sector.

A paragraph addressing this issue has been added to the manuscript.

I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here.

We agree that the civil war is a key context in the history of South Sudan, particularly in relation to damaged infrastructure. However, the civil war ended 20 years ago (in January 2005), leading to South Sudan becoming autonomous and later an independent country in 2011. There have also been internal conflicts (which are still ongoing) that have also contributed to further damage to the infrastructure. Despite these challenges, South Sudan has implemented various development projects since independence and during and after the internal conflicts, including the rehabilitation and extension of Juba distribution lines, several road projects, and others. So, while the civil war and internal conflicts had an impact, the current energy situation is mainly driven by other factors, such as ineffective planning, governance, and policy challenges. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan. We have also added political stability as a policy issue.
The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable

We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.

Are there interest groups set against?

No

The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower

Yes, Vision 2040 supports hydropower (size not specified) but the government has mainly focused on large hydropower.

The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt.

Yes, the focus on large hydropower in South Sudan was indeed inherited from Sudan. In fact, almost all available environmental studies on hydropower projects in South Sudan were conducted before South Sudan’s independence.

The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays

We appreciate the acknowledgment.

This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots

We agree. We also believe that the lack of a clear vision for the future development of electricity in the country is one of the main constraints.

I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc.

While diesel is also used for generating electricity, it is not the only reason for fuel imports in South Sudan. Imported fuel is also used for transportation (cars, buses, and tracks). Currently many government offices and some residents in Juba are using electricity from the Juba Electricity Distribution Company (JEDCO). So the demand for generators is not that strong as before.

At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure.

We agree. For example, there is no independent regulatory authority in South Sudan, and the government acts as a policymaker, regulator, and operator. This makes it difficult to maintain a stable and transparent environment for investment, which discourages investment in the sector.

A paragraph addressing this issue has been added to the manuscript.

I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here.

We agree that the civil war is a key context in the history of South Sudan, particularly in relation to damaged infrastructure. However, the civil war ended 20 years ago (in January 2005), leading to South Sudan becoming autonomous and later an independent country in 2011. There have also been internal conflicts (which are still ongoing) that have also contributed to further damage to the infrastructure. Despite these challenges, South Sudan has implemented various development projects since independence and during and after the internal conflicts, including the rehabilitation and extension of Juba distribution lines, several road projects, and others. So, while the civil war and internal conflicts had an impact, the current energy situation is mainly driven by other factors, such as ineffective planning, governance, and policy challenges. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan. We have also added political stability as a policy issue.
Competing Interests: There are no competing interests Close
Report a concern
Respond or Comment

COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT

Author Response 31 Mar 2025

Aban Ayik, African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

31 Mar 2025

Author Response
- The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable
- We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.
... Continue reading
The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable

We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.

Are there interest groups set against?

No

The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower

Yes, Vision 2040 supports hydropower (size not specified) but the government has mainly focused on large hydropower.

The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt.

Yes, the focus on large hydropower in South Sudan was indeed inherited from Sudan. In fact, almost all available environmental studies on hydropower projects in South Sudan were conducted before South Sudan’s independence.

The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays

We appreciate the acknowledgment.

This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots

We agree. We also believe that the lack of a clear vision for the future development of electricity in the country is one of the main constraints.

I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc.

While diesel is also used for generating electricity, it is not the only reason for fuel imports in South Sudan. Imported fuel is also used for transportation (cars, buses, and tracks). Currently many government offices and some residents in Juba are using electricity from the Juba Electricity Distribution Company (JEDCO). So the demand for generators is not that strong as before.

At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure.

We agree. For example, there is no independent regulatory authority in South Sudan, and the government acts as a policymaker, regulator, and operator. This makes it difficult to maintain a stable and transparent environment for investment, which discourages investment in the sector.

A paragraph addressing this issue has been added to the manuscript.

I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here.

We agree that the civil war is a key context in the history of South Sudan, particularly in relation to damaged infrastructure. However, the civil war ended 20 years ago (in January 2005), leading to South Sudan becoming autonomous and later an independent country in 2011. There have also been internal conflicts (which are still ongoing) that have also contributed to further damage to the infrastructure. Despite these challenges, South Sudan has implemented various development projects since independence and during and after the internal conflicts, including the rehabilitation and extension of Juba distribution lines, several road projects, and others. So, while the civil war and internal conflicts had an impact, the current energy situation is mainly driven by other factors, such as ineffective planning, governance, and policy challenges. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan. We have also added political stability as a policy issue.
The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable

We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.

Are there interest groups set against?

No

The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower

Yes, Vision 2040 supports hydropower (size not specified) but the government has mainly focused on large hydropower.

The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt.

Yes, the focus on large hydropower in South Sudan was indeed inherited from Sudan. In fact, almost all available environmental studies on hydropower projects in South Sudan were conducted before South Sudan’s independence.

The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays

We appreciate the acknowledgment.

This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots

We agree. We also believe that the lack of a clear vision for the future development of electricity in the country is one of the main constraints.

I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc.

While diesel is also used for generating electricity, it is not the only reason for fuel imports in South Sudan. Imported fuel is also used for transportation (cars, buses, and tracks). Currently many government offices and some residents in Juba are using electricity from the Juba Electricity Distribution Company (JEDCO). So the demand for generators is not that strong as before.

At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure.

We agree. For example, there is no independent regulatory authority in South Sudan, and the government acts as a policymaker, regulator, and operator. This makes it difficult to maintain a stable and transparent environment for investment, which discourages investment in the sector.

A paragraph addressing this issue has been added to the manuscript.

I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here.

We agree that the civil war is a key context in the history of South Sudan, particularly in relation to damaged infrastructure. However, the civil war ended 20 years ago (in January 2005), leading to South Sudan becoming autonomous and later an independent country in 2011. There have also been internal conflicts (which are still ongoing) that have also contributed to further damage to the infrastructure. Despite these challenges, South Sudan has implemented various development projects since independence and during and after the internal conflicts, including the rehabilitation and extension of Juba distribution lines, several road projects, and others. So, while the civil war and internal conflicts had an impact, the current energy situation is mainly driven by other factors, such as ineffective planning, governance, and policy challenges. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan. We have also added political stability as a policy issue.
Competing Interests: There are no competing interests Close
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Version 2

VERSION 2 PUBLISHED 23 Oct 2024

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Barnaby Joseph Dye, King's College London, London, UK
Taco Niet, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada

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29 May 2025 | for Version 2

Barnaby Joseph Dye, King's College London, London, England, UK

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Approved

Competing Interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise

Development studies, Africa Studies, Political Economy, The politics of infrastructure and the electricity Sector in Africa

I confirm that I have read this submission and believe that I have an appropriate level of expertise to confirm that it is of an acceptable scientific standard.

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02 Apr 2025 | for Version 2

Taco Niet, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

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Approved With Reservations

Competing Interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

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Energy Systems, Sustainable Energy, Energy Systems Modelling, Renewable Energy, Energy Storage

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31 Views

04 Feb 2025 | for Version 1

Taco Niet, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada

31 Views Cite this report Responses(1)

Approved With Reservations

Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader?

Partly
Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?

Yes
Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments?

Partly

Competing Interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise

Energy Systems, Sustainable Energy, Energy Systems Modelling, Renewable Energy, Energy Storage

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Author Response

31 Mar 2025

Aban Ayik, African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

The context in SS is not well developed. There was recent civil war that ended only a few years ago, and there is ongoing ethnic violence. This makes it much more challenging to address energy issues and access capital for development of any sort.

Response: As mentioned previously, the civil war in South Sudan ended 20 years ago. Despite the ongoing internal conflicts, the government has been able to access capital to implement some of its projects including energy projects. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan.

There is an implicit assumption that RE deployment will automatically increase electricity access. This hasn't been established in the article and is not necessarily the case. More imports and large power plants can also contribute to access.

Response: RE deployment has increased electricity access in some countries in the region (Kenya, Uganda and Rwanda). Similarly, we expect it to do the same as studies indicate the availability of renewable energy sources in the country. However, the process is not automatic. Its success depends on the technical and economic feasibility, followed by proper implementation, supportive policies, and financing. Therefore, while large power plants and electricity imports can contribute to increased access, they will take longer to implement especially in the absence of a national grid. Instead, other options such as developing solar power plants, run-of-river small hydropower plants, mini hydropower plants, mini-grids or hybrid systems should be considered while larger projects are being developed. This manuscript has been updated to reflect this.

You discuss that importing electricity is not sustainable but also recommend continuing regional cooperation. Reducing imports will likely reduce electricity access so hard to justify not continuing imports. Also Recommendation v statements are counter to each other - encourage regional integration but also not. Which is it?

Response: One of the benefits of the EAC regional integration is sharing of energy resources through interconnections, where countries with excess electricity export to countries with lower capacity or higher demand. So, we do not oppose regional cooperation or importing electricity because that can be beneficial in cases of high demand or for supplying remote border towns. It can also be beneficial if South Sudan plans to export electricity to the region in the future after developing its hydropower resources. However, we believe that prioritising the development of local energy resources will be more beneficial to South Sudan at the current time. South Sudan can prioritize developing its local energy resources while planning to import electricity. This section of the manuscript has been revised for clarity.

In Factors ii you say imported electricity is not used. This is non-sensical - the grid doesn't work that way. If electricity is imported it is used. Clarify what you mean by this statement.

Response: South Sudan has been importing 40 MW of electricity (in bulk) from Sudan for use in Renk and Malakal towns, and the areas along Renk-Malakal road. However, the transmission line from Renk to Malakal has not been built and the distribution network has not been rehabilitated or extended, resulting in South Sudan paying for unused electricity. Due to low demand, Renk has been consuming only a fraction of the imported electricity. This section of the manuscript has been updated for clarity.

Current electricity access (2022) is 8.4% https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=SS. But also 5.4% per IRENA's report. Maybe give a range or discuss why the number might vary. This is likely indicative of the issues in SS - lack of infrastructure makes it challenging to accurately assess such numbers. Worth a mention.

Response: We agree. We have changed the access to a range between 5.4% and 8.4%.

Recommendation I - might also discuss the fact that RE development requires smaller quanta of capital compared to large projects so can be easier to get going.

Response: We agree. This section has been updated.

Recommendation iv - Private equity does not show up in the policy issues so why is this a recommendation? Where is the current policy issue with private equity? This again speaks to the lack of context for SS as a country.

Response: We agree. This has been added.

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There are no competing interests

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Reviewer Report

34 Views

08 Nov 2024 | for Version 1

Barnaby Joseph Dye, King's College London, London, England, UK

34 Views Cite this report Responses(1)

Approved With Reservations

The construction of the problem – detail of what is possible and the negative implications of the present context are well made. The text is clearly articulated and the maps useful

The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable
- Are there interest groups set against?
- The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower
The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt
- The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays
This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots
- I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc
- At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure
I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here

Does the paper provide a comprehensive overview of the policy and the context of its implementation in a way which is accessible to a general reader?

Partly
Is the discussion on the implications clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?

Yes
Are the recommendations made clear, balanced, and justified on the basis of the presented arguments?

Partly

Competing Interests

No competing interests were disclosed.

Reviewer Expertise

Development studies, Africa Studies, Political Economy, The politics of infrastructure and the electricity Sector in Africa

Respond to this report

Responses (1)

Author Response

31 Mar 2025

Aban Ayik, African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development, College of Science and Technology, University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda

The word ‘Delay’ – assumes that South Sudan’s government wants to deploy renewables – or that it is inevitable
We replaced the word “delaying” with “preventing”.
- Are there interest groups set against?
- No
- The authors later mention that the government’s 2040 vision doesn’t support conventional renewables – only large hydropower
- Yes, Vision 2040 supports hydropower (size not specified) but the government has mainly focused on large hydropower.

The focus on large hydropower is rooted in longstanding ideas of development and electricity found across Africa, but also in Sudan (Which I presume South Sudan partly inherited?) and neighbouring Ethiopia and Egypt.
Yes, the focus on large hydropower in South Sudan was indeed inherited from Sudan. In fact, almost all available environmental studies on hydropower projects in South Sudan were conducted before South Sudan’s independence.
- The authors are right to point to environmental problems and cost overruns and construction delays
- We appreciate the acknowledgment.

This seems to me a political problem therefore – simplistically a lack of ‘will’ – but which probably has deeper roots
We agree. We also believe that the lack of a clear vision for the future development of electricity in the country is one of the main constraints.
- I presume there are many invested in the oil economy and in importing refined oil from abroad? Are there also strong political interests in generators? In other countries like Nigeria these are key explainers of renewable non-development/lack of grid extension etc.
- While diesel is also used for generating electricity, it is not the only reason for fuel imports in South Sudan. Imported fuel is also used for transportation (cars, buses, and tracks). Currently many government offices and some residents in Juba are using electricity from the Juba Electricity Distribution Company (JEDCO). So the demand for generators is not that strong as before.
- At some stage this needs to be mentioned as a constraint or possibility for the future, or that understanding the political economy context would be a recommendation for investors/donors attempting to build new electricity infrastructure.
- We agree. For example, there is no independent regulatory authority in South Sudan, and the government acts as a policymaker, regulator, and operator. This makes it difficult to maintain a stable and transparent environment for investment, which discourages investment in the sector.
- A paragraph addressing this issue has been added to the manuscript.

I am surprised that conflict and civil war is not mentioned once when it is so fundamental to the why infrastructure is difficult to achieve, constrained resources, lack of investment and the government’s ability to act. This is surely a key context even if beyond the scope of the recommendations here.
We agree that the civil war is a key context in the history of South Sudan, particularly in relation to damaged infrastructure. However, the civil war ended 20 years ago (in January 2005), leading to South Sudan becoming autonomous and later an independent country in 2011. There have also been internal conflicts (which are still ongoing) that have also contributed to further damage to the infrastructure. Despite these challenges, South Sudan has implemented various development projects since independence and during and after the internal conflicts, including the rehabilitation and extension of Juba distribution lines, several road projects, and others. So, while the civil war and internal conflicts had an impact, the current energy situation is mainly driven by other factors, such as ineffective planning, governance, and policy challenges. For context and background, we have added a brief paragraph providing an overview of the civil war and internal conflicts in South Sudan. We have also added political stability as a policy issue.

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Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:

Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested

Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit.

Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions

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Renewable energy: A way out for South Sudan’s electricity crisis

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Figure 1. (a-c): Solar, wind, and small hydropower potential of South Sudan (sources: Global Solar and Wind Atlases and Ref. 9).

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