De-ethnicizing Ethiopian higher education leadership: the quest for merit-based governance

3.1 Research design

The research employed a case study design, which enables a comprehensive examination of specific higher education institutions in Ethiopia. This design is particularly effective for understanding the intricate relationships between leadership styles and governance structures within their unique contexts. According to Yin (2018), case studies allow researchers to explore real-life situations in depth, making them ideal for investigating complex issues like ethnic considerations in leadership. By selecting multiple institutions as case studies, the research will gather diverse perspectives and experiences, facilitating a nuanced understanding of how merit-based governance can be achieved in a historically ethnicized landscape.

3.2 Sources of data

To ensure a robust analysis, data were collected from multiple sources, which enhance the validity of the findings through triangulation. First, semi-structured interviews were conducted with university leaders, faculty members, and administrative staff. These interviews provide insights into their experiences and perspectives on leadership practices and the influence of ethnicity on governance. Additionally, focus group discussions (FGDs) have been organized with students and alumni to capture their views on leadership dynamics and their experiences within these institutions. The researcher utilized an interview guide and informed consent to conduct the interviews and focus group discussions (Mohammed, 2024a). Such discussions are valuable for generating collective insights and fostering dialogue among participants. Finally, document analyses were employed on institutional reports, government policies, and academic literature (Mohammed, 2024b). This analysis was contextualizing the findings within the broader educational landscape and highlight existing frameworks that either support or hinder merit-based governance.

To enhance the quality and rigor of this research project, a purposive sampling strategy has been employed to select participants who possess relevant experience or knowledge about higher education leadership in Ethiopia. This approach ensures that diverse perspectives are included in the study, enriching the data collected. To refine questions and improve clarity, pilot testing of interview guides and focus group discussion prompts will be conducted with a small group prior to full implementation. This step is crucial for identifying potential issues in question formulation or participant comprehension. Furthermore, reflexivity play an important role throughout the research process; maintaining a reflexive journal will allow the researcher to document personal biases, assumptions, and reflections on how these may influence data interpretation.

3.3 Tools of data collection

The tools for data collection include semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion guides, and document review checklists. Semi-structured interviews will facilitate open-ended responses while ensuring that key topics related to leadership practices are covered (Mohammed, 2024c). An interview guide will be developed based on the research questions to maintain focus while allowing participants to express their thoughts freely. Focus group discussions will also be guided by structured questions designed to stimulate dialogue among participants about their experiences regarding governance and leadership. Document review checklists help systematically analyze institutional documents relevant to leadership practices, ensuring that critical information is not overlooked.

3.4 Methods of data analysis

Data analysis involves several systematic steps to ensure rigorous examination of the collected data. Initially, all interviews and focus group discussions will be transcribed verbatim to accurately represent participants’ voices. Thematic analysis will then be employed to identify recurring themes and patterns related to leadership practices and ethnic influences (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This method allows for a flexible approach to analyzing qualitative data while providing a clear framework for interpreting findings. Additionally, narrative analysis may be utilized to explore individual stories that illuminate the complexities surrounding de-ethnicization in leadership. By focusing on personal narratives, this approach can reveal deeper insights into how individuals navigate their identities within institutional frameworks.

3.5 Research ethics

Ethical considerations are paramount throughout the research process to ensure the integrity of the study and the protection of participants’ rights. Informed consents were obtained from all participants prior to data collection, ensuring they understand the purpose of the study and their rights regarding participation (Mohammed, 2024a). Confidentiality will be maintained by anonymizing participant data and securely storing all information collected during the research process. Participants will also have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without facing any penalties or repercussions. These ethical guidelines are essential for fostering trust between researchers and participants while ensuring that the research adheres to established ethical standards.

Therefore, this comprehensive qualitative methodology aims not only to provide valuable insights into the quest for merit-based governance in Ethiopian higher education leadership but also to address the challenges posed by ethnic considerations within this context. By employing a multi-faceted approach that includes diverse data sources and rigorous analytical techniques, this study seeks to contribute significantly to understanding how Ethiopian higher education can move towards more equitable governance structures.

Ethics and consent

The research adhered to stringent ethical standards to protect participants and maintain the integrity of the research process. Written consent was obtained from all participants, who were fully informed about the nature, purpose, and potential risks of the study before agreeing to participate. In this study, informed consent was obtained from all participants. Written consent was secured to ensure that participants fully understood the study’s purpose, procedures, and their rights, including the right to withdraw at any time without consequence. The study adhered to all ethical guidelines as approved by the ethical review committee, and no waiver of consent was granted. If verbal consent had been used, it would have been clearly documented along with the reasons for this approach, and such a procedure would have been explicitly approved by the ethics committee. However, in this study, written consent was used to maintain rigorous ethical standards. This ensured that participants were aware of their rights, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequences (Orb, Eisenhauer, & Wynaden, 2001).

Confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained throughout the research process. Identifying information was removed from transcripts, and data was securely stored to prevent unauthorized access. This approach was essential for protecting the privacy of participants and ensuring the ethical conduct of the research (Wiles, 2012). This study received full ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of College of Law and Governance, which comprises five members. The approval was granted on 10/02/2024 with number GaDS-307/2024. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in strict adherence to the Declaration of Helsinki to ensure the ethical integrity of the research.

4.1 Historical and Political Roots of Ethnic Leadership in Ethiopian Universities

The ethnicization of leadership in Ethiopian universities has deep historical and political roots, shaped by the broader socio-political dynamics of the country. The foundation for ethnic-based leadership in higher education is closely linked to the establishment of the Ethiopian state and the subsequent evolution of its political systems. Understanding these factors requires an examination of both the imperial and post-revolutionary periods, culminating in the adoption of ethnic federalism in 1995, which entrenched ethnicity as a key criterion in governance, including in educational institutions.

Historically, Ethiopia’s governance was characterized by highly centralized rule, especially during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I (1930–1974). Higher education institutions, established during this period, reflected the imperial hierarchy, with leadership positions often dominated by elites from the central government or individuals with ties to the monarchy. Ethnic considerations, though present, were not as pronounced during this era, as the leadership of institutions like Addis Ababa University was more focused on loyalty to the state than on ethnic identity (Marcus, 1994). The imperial regime’s centralized governance, however, laid the groundwork for the political manipulation of leadership appointments in all sectors, including education.

The 1974 Ethiopian Revolution, which led to the rise of the Derg regime, drastically altered the political landscape. The Derg’s Marxist ideology emphasized class struggle and sought to suppress ethnic identities in favor of a unified socialist state. However, the Derg’s brutal governance and the marginalization of ethnic groups, particularly in the periphery, exacerbated ethnic tensions (Young, 1998). This period also saw increased state control over universities, with leadership appointments reflecting the regime’s ideological and political priorities rather than academic or managerial merit. Despite the Derg’s attempt to minimize ethnic divisions, the regime’s policies inadvertently contributed to the rise of ethno-regional movements, which would later influence the trajectory of university governance.

The most significant shift occurred following the fall of the Derg in 1991 and the rise of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The EPRDF’s adoption of ethnic federalism, enshrined in the 1995 constitution, fundamentally restructured the Ethiopian state along ethno-linguistic lines. Ethnic federalism was introduced as a means to address the long-standing grievances of marginalized ethnic groups and to provide a framework for self-determination (Vaughan, 2003). While this system was intended to promote inclusivity and regional autonomy, it also institutionalized ethnicity as a key factor in political appointments and decision-making processes, including in the leadership of higher education institutions (Abbink, 2006).

Under the EPRDF, universities became increasingly politicized, with leadership appointments often reflecting the ethnic and political allegiances of the ruling coalition. Ethnic-based appointments were justified as a means of ensuring equitable representation for Ethiopia’s diverse ethnic groups. However, critics argue that these appointments prioritized political loyalty and ethnic identity over merit, resulting in leadership that may lack the academic qualifications or managerial skills necessary for effective governance (Aalen, 2011). As a result, the ethnicization of leadership within universities mirrored the broader ethnic federalism model, reinforcing divisions and sometimes leading to ethnic favoritism in resource allocation and decision-making within institutions.

Similarly, interview results confirmed as follows:

Moreover, the ethnicization of university leadership became particularly visible in the appointment of university presidents and senior administrators. In many cases, these appointments were based on ethnic representation, where leaders from dominant ethnic groups in specific regions were appointed to reflect the ethnic composition of the regional state, rather than the needs of the academic institution itself (Teshome, 2007). This approach often undermined meritocratic principles, leading to inefficiencies in university governance and a decline in institutional autonomy. Universities, which should ideally function as spaces of intellectual freedom and academic excellence, became subject to political manipulation, with leadership reflecting the political calculations of the ruling party.

In the same vein, primary data sources confirmed as follows:

Similarly, focus group participants’ unequivocally confirmed as follows:

The consequences of ethnic-based leadership appointments have been widely debated. On one hand, proponents of ethnic federalism argue that such appointments ensure representation and inclusivity for all of Ethiopia’s diverse groups, preventing the historical marginalization of minority communities (Merera, 2003). On the other hand, critics contend that ethnicization undermines the quality of governance and academic performance in universities, as leaders may be chosen for their ethnic or political affiliations rather than their qualifications or vision for the institution (Berhanu & Woldehanna, 2021). This dynamic has led to a leadership crisis in many Ethiopian universities, where the emphasis on ethnic identity over merit has resulted in poor governance, reduced academic standards, and limited institutional development.

The study findings on the reveal a complex interplay of factors rooted in institutional theory, principal-agent theory, and meritocratic theory. This context reflects the legacy of political dynamics that have historically favored certain ethnic groups over others, influencing who rises to positions of authority. Additionally, principal-agent theory elucidates the relationships between university leadership and stakeholders, highlighting how ethnic affiliations can impact accountability and governance, often resulting in a misalignment of interests where leaders prioritize ethnic loyalty over institutional objectives. Furthermore, meritocratic theory challenges the notion of a purely merit-based system by exposing how historical and political legacies can skew the selection process, allowing leaders to ascend based not only on qualifications but also on their ethnic background and political connections. Collectively, these theoretical frameworks illuminate the multifaceted nature of ethnic leadership in Ethiopian universities, revealing the need for a nuanced understanding of how historical and political contexts shape institutional dynamics.

4.2 Impact of Ethnic-Based Leadership on Governance and Academic Excellence in Ethiopian Universities

The ethnic-based leadership structure in Ethiopian universities has had profound consequences on governance, academic performance, and overall institutional quality. As leadership appointments in public universities have increasingly reflected ethnic identities and political allegiances, there are concerns that this approach undermines the core principles of meritocracy and institutional autonomy. The reliance on ethnic-based appointments has fostered inefficiencies in governance, weakened academic standards, and compromised the mission of universities to serve as independent centers of knowledge and innovation. In this context, the intersection of ethnicity and leadership has negatively affected governance, academic performance, and institutional quality in multiple ways.

4.2.1 Governance and Institutional Autonomy

The governance of Ethiopian universities, particularly public institutions, has been significantly influenced by ethnic-based leadership appointments, which are often guided by political considerations. These appointments have undermined the autonomy of universities by making them subject to external political pressures. University leadership, instead of being chosen based on merit, is often a reflection of the dominant ethnic group in the region where the university is located or aligned with the ruling coalition’s political calculations (Aalen, 2011). As a result, the autonomy of these institutions is compromised, with leaders sometimes serving the interests of political elites rather than prioritizing academic excellence and institutional development.

Ethnic-based leadership can lead to centralized decision-making that does not adequately reflect the needs of the academic community. Instead of promoting participatory governance, which is essential for the effective management of higher education institutions, leaders may focus on consolidating power within specific ethnic or political groups, limiting the space for diverse perspectives and academic freedom (Teshome, 2007). In some cases, ethnic favoritism may influence key decisions such as faculty appointments, promotions, and resource allocation, leading to imbalances and inefficiencies in the administration of the university. This dynamic contributes to a governance structure where ethnic identity becomes more significant than institutional goals, resulting in a lack of transparency, accountability, and long-term planning (Abbink, 2006).

Furthermore, ethnic-based leadership in universities exacerbates the fragmentation of the academic environment, leading to divisions within faculties and among students. When leadership is perceived as ethnically biased, it can create a sense of exclusion among groups that are not represented in the leadership structure, fostering mistrust and conflict. This politicization of leadership diminishes the collaborative environment necessary for research and learning, ultimately harming institutional governance and cohesion (Teferra, 2014). The lack of institutional autonomy and the politically driven nature of university governance in Ethiopia have significantly weakened the ability of universities to function as independent and high-performing academic institutions.

Consistent with the above assertions, primary interview results confirmed as follows:

4.2.2 Academic Performance and Institutional Quality

Ethnic-based leadership has also had detrimental effects on the academic performance and quality of Ethiopian universities. One of the core challenges is that ethnic-based appointments often prioritize political loyalty and ethnic representation over academic qualifications and managerial competence. This approach leads to leadership that may lack the necessary expertise to promote a high standard of academic performance and research (Berhanu & Woldehanna, 2021). The absence of a meritocratic system means that university leaders are often unprepared to meet the academic, financial, and administrative challenges of running a higher education institution, which requires a combination of academic knowledge, leadership skills, and managerial experience.

In similar vein, focus group discussion results attested as follows:

As a consequence, the academic performance of universities has suffered. When leadership is focused on ethnic considerations rather than academic achievement, the emphasis on research, innovation, and academic rigor may decline. University leaders who are appointed for their political or ethnic affiliations may not prioritize the development of strong academic programs or support for faculty and students to engage in high-quality research (Woldemariam, 2018). This lack of focus on academic excellence can lead to lower standards of teaching, diminished research output, and a decline in the university’s reputation both nationally and internationally.

Moreover, ethnic-based leadership affects the allocation of resources within universities, often resulting in inequitable distribution that prioritizes the interests of certain ethnic groups or political factions. This imbalance undermines the overall quality of the institution, as resources may not be directed towards the most critical academic or infrastructural needs (Ayenew, 2019). In some cases, ethnic favoritism in leadership has also been linked to corruption, where resources are misallocated or siphoned off for political or personal gain, further eroding the quality of education and institutional development (Yigremew, 2016).

The quality of university governance and academic standards are further compromised by the fact that ethnic-based leadership encourages a culture of dependency on external political actors. Instead of fostering internal mechanisms for quality assurance and institutional development, universities become reliant on political patronage to secure funding and other resources (Teferra, 2017). This dependency stifles the innovative capacity of the institutions and limits their ability to implement long-term strategies for academic and infrastructural growth. As a result, Ethiopian universities are often ranked lower compared to their counterparts in other African countries, reflecting the broader impact of ethnicized leadership on institutional quality (Ashcroft, 2018).

4.2.3 Long-Term Implications for Higher Education in Ethiopia

The long-term implications of ethnic-based leadership in Ethiopian universities are far-reaching. If not addressed, the continued politicization of university governance may result in further deterioration of academic standards and institutional integrity. Ethiopia’s higher education system, which has expanded rapidly in recent years, may fail to fulfill its potential in contributing to national development and producing globally competitive graduates (Altbach, 2011). Moreover, the lack of merit-based governance threatens the ability of Ethiopian universities to attract and retain top academic talent, both within the country and from the international academic community.

To mitigate these effects, there is a pressing need to reform the system of leadership appointments in Ethiopian universities. Merit-based governance, where leaders are chosen based on their academic credentials and managerial competence rather than ethnic identity, is crucial for restoring the integrity and effectiveness of the higher education system. Implementing transparent and meritocratic recruitment processes would not only improve governance but also enhance the quality of academic programs, research output, and institutional development (Teshome, 2007). Ultimately, shifting away from ethnic-based leadership is essential for Ethiopian universities to regain their role as independent institutions dedicated to academic excellence and national progress.

The findings highlight the intricate relationship between ethnic leadership and institutional performance, drawing upon institutional theory, principal-agent theory, and meritocratic theory. Ethnic-based leadership often leads to governance challenges, as institutional theory suggests that entrenched ethnic affiliations can create divisions and foster an environment of favoritism, undermining collaborative decision-making processes essential for effective governance. This fragmentation may inhibit academic excellence by perpetuating unequal access to resources and opportunities, as leaders may prioritize the interests of their ethnic group over the collective goals of the university. Principal-agent theory further illustrates how the alignment of interests between ethnic leaders and their constituents can skew accountability, leading to potential neglect of broader institutional responsibilities in favor of ethnic loyalty. Conversely, meritocratic theory emphasizes the potential drawbacks of ethnic leadership in promoting a merit-based culture, where academic qualifications and achievements may be overshadowed by political and ethnic considerations in leadership appointments. Ultimately, these theoretical perspectives collectively underscore the need for a reevaluation of leadership structures in Ethiopian universities, advocating for a governance model that transcends ethnic affiliations to foster an environment conducive to academic excellence and institutional integrity.

4.3 Enhancing Accountability and Performance through Merit-Based Governance in Ethiopian Higher Education

The implementation of merit-based governance in Ethiopian higher education institutions has the potential to transform university leadership by significantly improving accountability, transparency, and overall institutional performance. In contrast to ethnic-based appointments, where leadership roles are often determined by political or ethnic considerations, merit-based governance prioritizes the academic qualifications, experience, and leadership skills of individuals, thereby ensuring that the most competent and capable leaders are appointed to key positions. This shift could strengthen institutional governance and academic standards, fostering a more transparent and accountable educational environment, essential for the long-term development of Ethiopia’s higher education system.

4.3.1 Merit-Based Governance and Accountability

Merit-based governance is crucial for enhancing accountability within Ethiopian higher education institutions. Accountability refers to the responsibility of university leaders to manage institutional resources effectively, implement policies that align with academic goals, and ensure that the university operates in the best interest of students, faculty, and the broader community. A meritocratic leadership system can create a culture of responsibility by ensuring that leaders are selected based on their ability to meet the institution’s academic and administrative needs (Altbach, 2011). This approach encourages a results-oriented management style, where leaders are held accountable for their decisions and are expected to deliver measurable improvements in institutional performance.

In contrast, ethnic-based leadership can erode accountability as leaders may feel more beholden to political elites or ethnic constituencies than to the university community. Ethnic loyalties can create a situation in which leaders are not evaluated based on their effectiveness but on their ability to satisfy ethnic or political demands. This undermines the institution’s capacity to hold leaders accountable for poor performance or mismanagement, leading to a culture of impunity (Teferra, 2014). On the other hand, merit-based governance ensures that leaders are chosen based on their ability to uphold the institution’s mission, promote academic excellence, and manage resources efficiently. This focus on competence and integrity creates a governance structure that promotes accountability at all levels of the institution.

Moreover, when leadership appointments are made through transparent, merit-based processes, it becomes easier for stakeholders—including faculty, students, and external bodies—to hold university leaders accountable for their actions. Leaders selected on merit are more likely to implement mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating institutional performance, such as audits, reviews, and feedback systems, which are essential for creating a culture of accountability (Ashcroft, 2018). These measures ensure that universities operate with greater transparency, reducing the opportunities for corruption, mismanagement, and nepotism that have been associated with ethnic-based leadership (Yigremew, 2016).

4.3.2 Merit-Based Governance and Transparency

Transparency is another critical element that can be significantly improved through merit-based governance. Transparency in higher education institutions refers to the openness and clarity with which decisions are made, resources are allocated, and policies are implemented. Merit-based governance encourages transparent decision-making processes, particularly in areas such as leadership appointments, resource distribution, and academic promotions. When leaders are chosen based on their academic credentials and experience, there is less room for favoritism or manipulation in the decision-making process, leading to a more open and fair environment (Berhanu & Woldehanna, 2021).

In Ethiopian universities, ethnic-based leadership appointments often occur through opaque processes that are difficult to scrutinize. This lack of transparency can lead to distrust within the academic community and foster a perception that university leaders are not acting in the institution’s best interest but rather serving the interests of external political actors (Teshome, 2007). Merit-based governance, however, promotes transparency by making the criteria for leadership appointments clear and ensuring that all decisions are based on objective standards. This transparency not only improves the morale of the academic community but also strengthens public trust in higher education institutions.

By fostering transparency, merit-based governance can also improve the allocation of resources within universities. In institutions where leadership is based on merit, resources such as funding, research grants, and academic positions are more likely to be distributed based on need and merit rather than ethnic affiliation or political connections (Ayenew, 2019). Transparent allocation of resources ensures that all departments and faculties within the university have equal access to the tools they need to succeed, thus improving the overall quality of education and research. Additionally, transparent governance structures make it easier to detect and prevent corrupt practices, further enhancing the integrity of the institution (Yigremew, 2016).

4.3.3 Merit-Based Governance and Institutional Performance

The most significant impact of merit-based governance is its potential to improve the performance of Ethiopian higher education institutions. Institutional performance, in this context, refers to the university’s ability to meet its academic and administrative goals, including the delivery of high-quality education, the production of cutting-edge research, and the efficient management of resources. Merit-based governance ensures that university leaders have the necessary skills and qualifications to manage the institution effectively, thereby improving overall performance (Altbach, 2011). Leaders selected through meritocratic processes are more likely to have a clear vision for the institution’s future and the capacity to implement strategies that enhance academic and research excellence.

Ethnic-based leadership, on the other hand, often results in leaders who may lack the academic background or managerial competence to effectively run a university. This can lead to poor decision-making, inefficiencies in administration, and a decline in academic standards. For example, leaders who are appointed based on ethnic or political affiliations may prioritize short-term political gains over long-term institutional development, which can have a detrimental effect on the university’s ability to achieve its academic mission (Teferra, 2017). By contrast, merit-based governance ensures that leaders are selected based on their ability to improve institutional performance, which includes enhancing academic programs, supporting faculty development, and investing in research and innovation.

Furthermore, merit-based governance contributes to a more competitive and dynamic academic environment. When university leadership is based on merit, it sets a standard for excellence that permeates throughout the institution. Faculty members are encouraged to pursue excellence in teaching and research, knowing that promotions and rewards are based on merit rather than political connections or ethnic background (Woldemariam, 2018). This meritocratic culture not only improves individual performance but also enhances the overall reputation of the university, making it more attractive to talented faculty, students, and international collaborators.

In addition to improving academic standards, merit-based governance has the potential to enhance administrative efficiency within Ethiopian universities. Competent leaders are better equipped to manage financial resources, streamline administrative processes, and implement policies that promote long-term institutional growth. Effective leadership, combined with transparent governance practices, ensures that universities can operate more efficiently, reduce wastage, and maximize the use of available resources for academic and infrastructural development (Ashcroft, 2018).

The findings underscore the crucial role of meritocratic principles in fostering effective governance and improving institutional performance. Drawing from institutional theory, the research highlights how entrenched practices and norms within Ethiopian universities can impede the implementation of merit-based frameworks, often leading to inefficiencies and a lack of transparency. By emphasizing accountability, merit-based governance challenges the existing ethnic-based leadership paradigms, as principal-agent theory illustrates how aligning the interests of leaders and stakeholders through performance metrics can enhance overall accountability. This alignment fosters a culture where leaders are held responsible for their actions and decisions, ultimately driving better outcomes for the institution. Furthermore, meritocratic theory posits that prioritizing qualifications and competencies over ethnic affiliations can cultivate a more equitable and productive academic environment, enabling a diverse array of talents to contribute to the institution’s success. Collectively, these theoretical frameworks advocate for a transformative shift towards merit-based governance in Ethiopian higher education, emphasizing that such an approach not only enhances accountability but also elevates academic performance and institutional integrity.

Consistent with the above assertions, interview and focus group discussion results attested as follows:

Similarly educations reform experts underlined that:

On the other hand, Focus Group Discussion results shows confirmed that:

4.4 Strategies for Implementing Meritocracy in Ethiopia’s Higher Education

Promoting a meritocratic system in Ethiopian higher education institutions requires a comprehensive, multifaceted approach that addresses both the internal governance structures of universities and the broader ethnic and political landscape of the country. Given the challenges posed by Ethiopia’s diverse ethnic makeup and politicized governance framework, the successful implementation of meritocracy in university leadership must be carefully tailored to mitigate ethnic tensions and political interference. This proactive approach involves institutional reforms, legal frameworks, inclusive leadership practices, and sustained political will to transform the current leadership selection processes into systems that prioritize competence, accountability, and transparency.

4.4.1 Institutional Reforms and Capacity Building

A key strategy for implementing meritocracy in Ethiopia’s higher education is institutional reform that strengthens the governance structures of universities. Central to this is the establishment of clear and transparent criteria for leadership appointments, emphasizing academic qualifications, managerial experience, and ethical integrity. These reforms must be institutionalized to ensure that leadership positions are filled based on merit rather than political or ethnic considerations (Altbach, 2011). Universities need to adopt comprehensive recruitment and selection processes that include clear job descriptions, standardized assessment criteria, and public vetting procedures to minimize the potential for favoritism or political interference.

Additionally, capacity building is essential for developing a pool of qualified candidates for leadership roles. Continuous professional development programs for academic staff, administrators, and potential leaders should be prioritized. Such programs could focus on leadership training, financial management, academic governance, and ethical decision-making to ensure that candidates possess the skills necessary to manage higher education institutions effectively (Ashcroft, 2018). A meritocratic system cannot function without a robust pipeline of capable leaders, and capacity-building efforts can help ensure that Ethiopia’s universities have a pool of competent candidates who are ready to take on leadership roles.

To support these institutional reforms, universities must develop mechanisms for internal accountability and evaluation. Regular performance reviews and institutional audits should be implemented to ensure that leaders adhere to their mandates and contribute to the institution’s strategic goals. These internal accountability mechanisms are essential for preventing the entrenchment of power and ensuring that leadership appointments remain meritocratic over time (Teferra, 2014).

4.4.2 Legislative and Policy Frameworks

The Ethiopian government plays a critical role in fostering a meritocratic environment within higher education through the development and enforcement of legal and policy frameworks. A key step is the revision of existing laws and regulations governing university leadership appointments to include meritocratic principles. This would entail formalizing the criteria for leadership roles in national higher education policies, ensuring that all appointments are based on transparent and objective standards (Berhanu & Woldehanna, 2021). Legal frameworks should explicitly prohibit ethnic favoritism and political patronage in leadership appointments, making it mandatory for universities to adhere to meritocratic procedures.

Moreover, the Ministry of Education and other relevant bodies should enforce regulations that ensure compliance with merit-based recruitment and selection processes. Independent oversight bodies could be established to monitor the appointment of university leaders and to investigate potential cases of nepotism, ethnic favoritism, or political interference. These bodies should have the authority to nullify appointments that violate meritocratic principles and recommend corrective actions, ensuring that university leadership is not compromised by external political pressures (Altbach, 2011).

4.4.3 Inclusive Leadership and Representation

While meritocracy focuses on individual qualifications, it is equally important to ensure that leadership structures reflect the diversity of Ethiopia’s population. Promoting meritocracy does not mean ignoring the country’s ethnic diversity; instead, strategies must ensure that merit-based governance is compatible with inclusive leadership practices. Universities should strive for a balance between selecting leaders based on merit and ensuring that leadership teams are representative of Ethiopia’s different ethnic groups. This approach can help reduce ethnic tensions by promoting a sense of inclusion while maintaining a focus on competence (Berhanu & Woldehanna, 2021).

One strategy for achieving this balance is to implement policies that encourage ethnic and gender diversity within leadership teams while maintaining merit-based criteria as the primary basis for appointments. For example, universities could adopt policies that require leadership teams to include individuals from diverse backgrounds, provided that all candidates meet the established qualifications for their roles. Such policies ensure that leadership remains both inclusive and meritocratic, helping to prevent the exclusion of minority groups while promoting excellence in governance (Teshome, 2007).

Additionally, the promotion of inclusive leadership extends beyond ethnic representation to include gender equity. Ensuring that women are adequately represented in leadership positions is crucial for fostering a more inclusive and diverse academic environment. Gender equity initiatives that support the advancement of women in academic leadership, such as mentorship programs and leadership development workshops, can help address the underrepresentation of women in Ethiopian university leadership roles (Ayenew, 2019).

4.4.4 Depoliticization of Higher Education

One of the most significant challenges to implementing meritocracy in Ethiopian universities is the deep entrenchment of political influence in the education sector. To promote merit-based governance, it is necessary to depoliticize higher education leadership appointments. This requires a commitment from both the government and universities to limit political interference in the selection and evaluation of leaders. Political appointees often prioritize loyalty to their political patrons over the academic mission of the institution, leading to poor governance and academic decline (Teferra, 2017). Therefore, depoliticizing university leadership is essential for fostering a meritocratic system.

Depoliticization can be achieved by creating independent bodies responsible for overseeing leadership appointments and ensuring that these bodies operate free from political influence. For instance, university senates or independent commissions composed of academic professionals, civil society representatives, and educational experts could be empowered to select university leaders based on objective, merit-based criteria. These bodies must be shielded from political pressures and have the autonomy to make decisions that are in the best interest of the academic institution rather than political parties (Woldemariam, 2018).

Another important aspect of depoliticization is fostering a culture of academic freedom within Ethiopian universities. By protecting the autonomy of academic institutions, the government can help create an environment where university leaders are free to make decisions based on academic and administrative needs rather than political expediency. This can be achieved through legislation that enshrines the independence of higher education institutions and prohibits political interference in academic affairs (Ashcroft, 2018).

4.4.5 Building a Meritocratic Culture and Political Will

Ultimately, the success of any meritocratic system in Ethiopian higher education depends on the development of a meritocratic culture within both universities and society at large. This culture must be built through sustained efforts to promote the values of excellence, integrity, and fairness in leadership appointments. Universities should foster a meritocratic ethos among faculty and staff by encouraging a focus on academic achievement, professional development, and ethical governance (Yigremew, 2016).

Political will is also essential for the long-term implementation of meritocracy in Ethiopian higher education. While the government plays a key role in establishing the legal and policy frameworks for merit-based governance, political leaders must also commit to upholding these principles in practice. This requires a departure from the political traditions of patronage and clientelism, which have long shaped leadership appointments in Ethiopian universities. Political leaders must recognize that merit-based governance is in the best interest of national development and higher education reform (Teferra, 2017). Furthermore, civil society, academic organizations, and international partners can play a critical role in advocating for merit-based reforms in Ethiopia’s higher education system. By raising awareness of the benefits of meritocracy and holding both universities and the government accountable for leadership appointments, these groups can help build momentum for meaningful change.

Consistent with the above views, primary data sources confirmed that:

In the same vein, Interview with Government Official asserted that:

On the other hand, Focus Group Discussion results attested that:

The findings reveal the multifaceted challenges and opportunities of fostering a merit-based system within a complex socio-political landscape. Grounded in institutional theory, the research identifies how historical practices and cultural norms within Ethiopian universities can serve as significant barriers to the effective implementation of meritocratic principles. By advocating for systemic changes that prioritize qualifications and competencies, the study emphasizes the need for universities to redefine their governance structures and processes to mitigate ethnic favoritism. Principal-agent theory further informs the discussion by illustrating how establishing clear accountability mechanisms can enhance transparency and trust between university leadership and stakeholders, ensuring that leaders are incentivized to prioritize academic excellence over ethnic loyalties. Moreover, meritocratic theory underlines the importance of equitable access to resources and opportunities for all students and faculty, regardless of their ethnic background, to create an environment conducive to academic achievement. By integrating these theoretical perspectives, the findings underscore that a comprehensive strategy for implementing meritocracy in Ethiopia’s higher education system must involve institutional reforms, stakeholder engagement, and a commitment to fostering a culture of excellence that transcends ethnic affiliations, ultimately enhancing the quality and integrity of higher education in the country.