Household resilience of women migrant worker sellers of Jamu Gendong

Ethical considerations

This research has applied Ethical approval for research involving respondents. Ethical approval (ethical clearance) measures the ethical acceptability of a series of research processes. We obtained research ethical clearance approval from the BRIN Ethics Commission before the research began as a reference for upholding the values of integrity, honesty, and fairness in conducting research. In ethical clearance, there is informed consent, which guarantees the confidentiality of all information provided by participants. The ethical approval is included in the Ethics Commission for the Social Humanities Decree of the National Research and Innovation Agency No. 454/KE.01/SK/10/2022 dated 12 October 2022.

We also carried out the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Studies (COREQ) checklist before conducting the research. Regarding respondents and interviewer, we ensure that 1) there was no relationship established before study commencement; 2) participants know about the researcher’s reasons for collecting data; and 3) There was no bias, assumptions, reasons, or interests in the research topic for the interviewer/facilitator. Consent to be interviewed was given by the respondent in writing, by the respondent signing the questionnaire form, before the interview was conducted.

Research problems

Despite the importance of women’s migration and their role in the informal sector, such as selling herbal medicine, for the economic sustainability of families and communities, the current literature tends to focus on men’s migration (Donaldson et al., 2009; Stahl & Zhao, 2023). As a result, essential aspects of women’s migration, including livelihood strategies, socio-economic resilience, and the influence of local social and cultural capital on migrant women’s economic resilience, have not received adequate attention. Furthermore, there is still a lack of research on how migrant women in the informal sector, such as herbal medicine sellers, develop resilience strategies and use different forms of capital to survive in urban areas.

Research questions

Study design

This research used quantitative and qualitative methods to obtain more comprehensive, valid, reliable, and objective data (Masrizal, 2012) in Ciamis Regency, West Java Province ( Figure 1). In November 2022, Ciamis Regency was selected as the research location because it is a destination for migrating residents outside the area who become informal workers selling jamu gendong, specifically from Sukoharjo Regency, Surakarta City, and Wonogiri Regency, Central Java Province.

Figure 1. Research Location.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

The data collected comprised primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews using an interview guide. Structured interviews were conducted with respondents selected purposively by looking for jamu gendong sellers in shops. Secondary data was obtained from various sources such as documents and literature searches through websites related to the research. Literature is searched on several main indexers, namely Scopus and Google Scholar. Articles were searched using keywords such as “jamu gendong”, “herbal medicines”, “household resilience”, “migration”, “female worker”, and “livelihood”.

Variables

Based on the research problems mentioned in the introduction, in this study research variables were compiled that influence the level of resilience of herbal medicine sellers as migrants. The level of resilience of households selling jamu gendong is influenced by the household income structure which includes a diversity of income sources. Ownership of assets by sellers of jamu gendong will influence the level of resale. The types of assets that will have an influence are Human Capital, Physical Capital, Natural Capital, Social Capital, Financial Capital.

Questionnaire

This research used 51 participants who were selected by using snowball sampling. The snowball interview begins by surveying herbal medicine sellers selling at shops, stalls, or depots. In these shops/stalls/depots, traders of traditional herbal medicine usually purchase herbal medicine in sachets (factory-made). These places identify where herbal medicine traders are most likely to live. The initial search for respondents was focused on the center of Ciamis Regency, specifically Ciamis District. This area is believed to have the highest consumption of herbal medicine due to easy access to markets and other resources. A total of 39 respondents were acquired from the Ciamis District. To enhance the number of participants and extend the research area, we surveyed other districts, such as Cikoneng and Cijeungjing Districts. According to initial information, despite the small population, there are traditional herbal medicine sellers in these two districts. Twelve people were successfully interviewed from these two districts, resulting in 51 people. The bias of the snowball sampling technique can be minimized by setting clear criteria (Noy, 2008), namely ensuring that the respondent has worked as a jamu gendong seller for at least two years, does not live in the same house as other respondents, comes from outside Ciamis and has a different selling location. The participants were selected because of their experiences in selling jamu gendong for a minimum of two years. The research was conducted for the first time; therefore it used the specific questionnaires which were not used before. The suitability of questionnaires were evaluated before implemented in research activity. The final questionnaire and interview guide are provided as Extended data (Widyaningsih, 2023).

Interviews

In-depth interviews were conducted with six informants selected deliberately from related technical agencies, because they were considered to have extensive knowledge and understanding of the development of herbal medicine businesses and the provision of raw materials. They include officials at the Agriculture and Food Crops Agency of Ciamis Regency, Cooperatives, Small and Medium Enterprises, the Trade Agency of Ciamis Regency, the Regional Planning and Development Agency (Bappeda) of Ciamis Regency, West Java Regional VII Forest Service Branch with one of the working areas being Ciamis Regency, and the Center for Implementation of Environmental and Forestry Instrument Standards (BPSI LHK) Ciamis. Interviews were conducted with deliberately selected respondents. Determining respondents uses the snowball technique to identify the flow of data needed from one respondent to another.

Interviews were carried out by researchers who have more than 10 years of experience in social research. The total interview time was three months, depending on the respondent’s time availability. The majority of respondents were individuals, only a few were interviewed in groups. The interview media uses audio recordings, with prior approval from the respondent.

Analysis

The Household Resiliency Index (HRI) is a simple, user-friendly tool that can be used to assess and classify households. The HRI has a quantitative questionnaire that assigns points to each response. The questionnaire includes variables that were carefully chosen to measure the impact of economic strengthening interventions on household assets, income, expenses, and health outcomes.

Three parameters are measured, i.e., asset and income, expenses, and health outcomes. Indicator for each parameter can be seen in Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3. Each parameter consists of several indicators which are scored according to the HRI guide for measuring household economic resilience developed by the Alliance for Child Protection in Humanitarian Action (2011). Assets and income = 35 points, including the indicator of monthly savings of max 10 points, livestock owned of max 10 points, and an increase in monthly income of max 5 points. Expenses = 35 points, including the number of meals per day max 10 points, ability to pay for basic needs max 10 points, ability to invest in income-generating activities (IGAs) max 15 points. Health outcome = 30 points, including Ability to pay for children’s school fees (level) max 10 points, Household members fully covered by health insurance max 5 points, Household food production level max 15 points. Decision criteria used as follows:

After all the data was collected, the data was tabulated using the Microsoft Excel program for each parameter. The calculation results are then explained descriptively. Secondary data in related literature was used to strengthen, contrast, or compare research findings.

A. Livelihood Structure of Female “Jamu Gendong” Sellers

Income structure is the composition of household income from various livelihood activities carried out by all household members (Dharmawan, 2007b). Based on the results, the average income of respondents is IDR 55,664,492/year. The structure of the respondents’ income is divided into two groups: income from selling jamu gendong and income from spouses. Figure 2 shows that the family’s income is dominated by selling jamu gendong at 62.5%, while the remainder comes from the spouse’s income. Respondents use a dual income pattern in which husband and wife work together to earn a living to meet their needs (Sumersi et al., 2021). According to Ellis (2000b), individuals and households diversify their livelihoods for two reasons, namely, need or choice.

Figure 2. The proportion of main income and spouse income.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

Furthermore, the couple’s primary occupation revolves around the role of sellers, with a particular emphasis on fast food, specifically meatballs. Five respondents (9.8%) did not have a partner, while nine (17.6%) had unemployed partners, resulting in a lack of supplementary income. The significance of women’s earnings as jamu sellers in bolstering family income is illustrated in Figure 3. By actively participating in the workforce, women effectively assist their husbands in sustaining the family’s economic stability and augmenting the total income (Maradou et al., 2017; Musa et al., 2015), and providing a safety valve or household support to meet basic daily needs (Ramli et al., 2020). Women’s involvement in economic activities must be acknowledged, even though there are differences in work between men and women.

Figure 3. Type of work performed by the spouse.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

According to Fridayanti and Dharmawan (2015) and Salatalohy (2019), income from a partner is part of a diversification strategy or a double income pattern (Parker & Peterson, 2016; Smith, 2019). Even though the role of women is more dominant, the household income structure of jamu sellers can be categorized as a model of shared responsibility in which all members contribute to family income and share the responsibility for expenses. Each family member may have a source of income and contribute according to their means (Johnson & Williams, 2018; Miller, 2017). The income is used to meet the family’s needs together (Jackson & Davis, 2015; Miller, 2017). This model promotes participation and shared responsibility in managing family finances.

Household expenditure refers to all the expenses associated with purchasing goods and services to meet basic needs (Illahi et al., 2018). These expenditures can be broadly categorized into food and nonfood expenditures (Alfrida & Noor, 2017). Food expenditures typically include items such as rice, vegetables, side dishes, oil, etc. Nonfood expenditures include clothing, transportation, health, communication, water, electricity, taxes, LPG for cooking, and other nonfood consumption.

According to the data presented in Table 4, the expenditure on food accounts for approximately 49.7% of household expenses, while nonfood slightly surpasses food expenditure at 50.3%. Trihastono et al. (2021) found that as household income increased, the proportion of spending on food tended to decrease, while the percentage allocated to nonfood items became larger. The higher the household income, the smaller the proportion of consumption allocated to food. Several factors influence the amount of household consumption, including economic, demographic, and noneconomic factors (Illahi et al., 2018). Moreover, food expenditure serves as an indicator of economic well-being (Haq, 2009). In societies where the percentage of spending on food is significantly lower than on nonfood items, greater prosperity is often observed. Household expenses for jamu gendong traders are shown in Table 4.

According to research conducted by the World Bank (2007), impoverished households in developing nations allocated a significant portion of their income, up to 70%–80%, toward food expenses. Expenditure on food purchased from jamu sellers accounted for nearly 50% of their income. Even though the World Bank (2007) considered this expenditure relatively modest, it remained the most significant component compared to others. The two primary nonfood expenses were directed toward educating children and providing transfers to families in their places of origin. Interestingly, this finding contradicted previous research that identified housing needs, such as rent or mortgage repayments (UN-Habitat, 2003) and health costs (World Health Organization, 2008) as the primary nonfood expenses.

The relatively smaller amount allocated to these categories can be attributed to the transfer activities directed toward families in their places of origin. Meanwhile, the monetary transfers made by migrant workers residing in cities are crucial in reducing poverty levels in their villages. The recipients of these transfers can utilize them to fulfill basic needs of food, housing, education, and health (Rachmaniah & Suryahadi, 2016). They also underscore the benefits of migration, which provide village families with access to economic resources, information, and expanded social networks.

B. Household Livelihood Assets of Women Jamu Gendong Sellers

Livelihood is defined as a means of earning a living (Chamber and Conway, 1991). According to DFID (2001), sustainable livelihoods are needed for resilience, which is supported by five assets: human resources (capital), natural, physical, financial, and social capital. The livelihood assets owned by women selling jamu in Ciamis Regency are as follows.

Human capital encompasses the aptitudes, knowledge, capabilities, and good health that empower individuals to pursue diverse livelihood strategies and attain their objectives (DFID, 2001). It refers to an individual’s intrinsic and acquired assets, including skills, abilities, and competencies (Quandt, 2018). This concept entails proficiency, sound health, and the capacity to engage in various life strategies and endeavors to achieve livelihood goals (Shen et al., 2009).

Within the jamu-selling community, individuals aged 40–49 years (47.06%) dominate the productive age group. Their education level predominantly comprises high school graduates (Junior High School and Senior High School), accounting for 60.78%, while those who did not attend or complete elementary school make up 39.22%. The level of education did not reduce the respondents’ interest in selling Jamu Gendong, as expressed by Mrs. Wn (54 years), who has been a seller since the age of 14: “I only went to school until I graduated from elementary school, but I have to sell jamu to help the family’s economy.” Therefore, the respondents are enthusiastic and motivated to survive in the face of economic shocks. They also have knowledge and skills in preparing jamu as a legacy from their ancestors that is still maintained. The distribution of respondents based on human capital is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Distribution of respondents based on the condition of human capital.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

Assistance to Jamu Gendong sellers is primarily from family members, with 56.86% of respondents indicating that they receive support from their relatives. The remaining sellers handle the business themselves because they do not reside with family members. The absence of hired workers is not solely motivated by cost reduction but also by personal preference and the satisfaction derived from mixing the herbs. Beyene et al. (2023) stated that male-headed households were more resilient at meeting food needs. However, looking at the human capital condition of jamu sellers, women are also tough and play a significant role in meeting family needs. They encounter higher risks compared to their husbands, particularly in marketing. In addition to the necessity to visit customers, women are also susceptible to physical violence, such as robbery and verbal abuse (Perry et al., 2020). Employment within the informal sector often fails to provide favorable conditions for decent work because it lacks security and legal protections. These sellers may lack proper channels or mechanisms to voice their grievances or assert their rights. The jamu sellers encounter challenges while selling that are often not reported to their husbands (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2022).

Physical capital comprises basic infrastructure and production goods needed to support livelihoods (DFID, 2001). Infrastructure consists of changes in the physical environment that helps people meet their basic needs and become more productive. Produced goods are tools and equipment that people use to function more productively. Physical capital refers to access to services and infrastructure (Adato & Meinzen-Dick, 2002), including skills, knowledge, education, health, and access to the family workforce (Tacoli, 1999). It contributes to the local environment, including housing, public places, industries, bridges, dams, harbors, and shelters, as well as includes vital facilities such as electricity, water, telephone, and gas.

Based on Figure 5, the conditions of some of the Jamu Gendong sellers’ facilities are available at their place of residence, making it easier to live and conduct business. Generally, jamu sellers select to live in downtown Ciamis by renting small houses.

Figure 5. Distribution of respondents based on physical capital conditions.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

Jamu gendong vendors can capitalize on the existing physical infrastructure, including well-maintained roads and traditional markets that offer a wide range of equipment for producing and marketing jamu. Additionally, nearby health facilities are conveniently accessible, enabling jamu sellers to access necessary healthcare services. Educational institutions, such as schools, are also near their surroundings.

Natural capital refers to the inherent natural resources and elements that contribute to carrying capacity and provide valuable benefits to human livelihoods (DFID, 2001). It holds particular significance for individuals who rely on natural resource-based activities as a primary or partial source of income (Sharafi et al., 2018). These resources comprise various components, including land, water, mines, livestock, and other natural resources. Examples of natural capital are ownership of agricultural land, forests, pastures, water resources, and mineral industries (Nasrnia & Ashktorab, 2021). Natural capital that generates carrying capacity and creates value for the livelihoods of jamu sellers includes the availability of raw materials for making jamu from the surrounding environment. According to 92.16% of respondents, there was no difficulty in obtaining raw materials. Raw materials can be obtained at traditional markets or from the gardens and rice fields of the surrounding community, as stated by 41.18% of respondents. Availability is the main natural capital for the resilience of the jamu business. Furthermore, other assets, such as gardens, rice fields, and livestock, are only owned by a small proportion of jamu sellers, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Distribution of respondents based on natural capital conditions.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

Social capital is a valuable resource used for pursuing livelihoods, encompassing networking, group affiliations, and mutual trust (DFID, 2001). It comprises networks, groups, associations, relationships, trust, and interactions (Adger et al., 2003). Individuals and communities can access resources and capital through communication and relationships. Social assets are the social resources people leverage to make a living (Nasrnia & Ashktorab, 2021).

For jamu sellers, the social capital they develop primarily revolves around the community of fellow jamu sellers, which serves as a platform for interaction and problem-solving among peers. The physical proximity of their residences, indicated by 92.16% of respondents, enables close connections and fosters strong ties among jamu sellers ( Figure 7).

Figure 7. Distribution of respondents based on social capital.

(This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).

Financial capital refers to the resources that individuals use to achieve their life objectives. These resources encompass reserves or supplies that are owned by individuals or held by financial institutions. Financial capital includes a regular flow of funds, such as income, expenses, savings, accounts payable, and assistance (DFID, 2001). It encompasses various forms of financial resources, including cash, bank accounts, savings, income, investments, credit, current assets, pension rights, allowances, grants, financial remittances, and household property (Nasrnia & Ashktorab, 2021).

According to the findings, a significant majority of respondents assist their husbands while also engaging in additional income-generating activities, such as working as masseurs or selling meatballs and food. The financial assets are predominantly allocated toward household expenses, primarily to meet the needs of children and families residing in the area of origin. Furthermore, 76.47% of jamu sellers possess noncash savings, and 84.31% have bank accounts, as shown in Figure 8. Most respondents (80.39%) can access loans or credit from banks and other institutions. Households selling jamu have savings to use as needed. For instance, one of the respondents, Miss St (52 years old), mentioned that she not only saves in a bank account but also allocates a portion of her income toward building a house in her hometown and supporting her children’s education. Additionally, 21.57% own gardens and 31.37% possess rice fields in their hometowns. In addition to their role as natural capital, owning rice fields and gardens significantly contributes to the saving capacity of households.

Figure 8. Distribution of respondents based on financial capital (This figure is an original figure produced by the author(s) for this article).