Surface engineering of chak’o nano-clay with iron oxide and APTES for enhanced heavy metal adsorption in water treatment

Introduction

Environmental challenges stem from heavy metal pollution since these pollutants harm human health as well as ecosystem structures. Heavy pollutants enter the environment through several sources including manufacturing plants and mining sites and agricultural activities and trash disposal sites. The three major problematic heavy metals include lead (Pb²⁺) along with arsenic (As⁵⁺) and cadmium (Cd²⁺). These heavy metals gather in water bodies and soils producing enduring ecological and health complications. The neurologic harm caused by Pb²⁺ primarily affects children while As⁵⁺ functions as a carcinogenic agent and Cd²⁺ displays toxicity against bones and kidneys. Watersource contamination requires immediate heavy metal extraction because it protects environmental areas together with securing public health (Kurhaluk et al., 2024). Scientists have adopted four main techniques to purify water from heavy metals: chemical precipitation followed by ion exchange and membrane filtration and finally adsorption. The adsorption method stands as an optimal and extensively researched water treatment technique because of its ease of application and low operational cost together with its ability to effectively eliminate different pollutants (Rashid et al., 2021). Heavy metal ion recognition and surface stagnation proceeds with materials that draw and maintain these ions on their outer layers through physical and chemical surface forces such as van der Waals attraction and electrostatic binding and chemical attachment. The adsorption process depends on materials' capacity to adhere heavy metal ions by physical and chemical bond mechanisms which include van der Waals forces and electrostatic attraction and chemical bonding. Material effectiveness for adsorption purposes depends on parameters like surface area with pore size distribution as well as surface functionalization and material stability according to Mane et al. (2024). Nano clays and clay minerals increasingly interest scientists working in environmental remediation because they possess remarkable surface area properties alongside abundance and environmental compatibility and affordability. The adsorption properties of montmorillonite and bentonite nano-clays can easily be improved by modifying their surface hydroxyl groups. The surface modification of clays with different organic and inorganic elements enhances heavy metal adsorption through either added active sites or modified surface charges according to Zhang et al. (2021). APTES (3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane functions as a common organosilane modifier to create clay surfaces with added metal ion adsorption capabilities through its addition of -NH2 groups (Mao and Gao, 2021).

The incorporation of iron oxide (Fe₃O₄) as a metal oxide modification leads to improved material stability and surface area while giving the material magnetic properties which enable simple post-adsorption separation (Liu et al., 2020). Nano clays receive great benefit through the iron oxide nanoparticle addition because these materials show strong heavy metal adsorption based on their metal-chelating properties and highly reactive surfaces (Emam, 2022). When organic APTES combine with inorganic iron oxide nanoparticles the materials gain parallel advantages which boost their absorption qualities and operational stability while extending their useful lifetime. This research examines the modification process of chak’o nano-clay by integrating APTES and iron oxide while studying its heavy metal removal aptitude. The main purpose of this study entails examining how chak'o nano-clay structural properties together with surface characteristics and Pb²⁺ As⁵⁺ Cd²⁺ adsorption performance change following organic and inorganic modification procedures. The study examines performance factors in heavy metal remediation applications through evaluation of surface area, pore volume, surface functionality changes and adsorption isotherms and kinetic parameters of modified nano-clays. Multiple studies have already shown clay surfaces could successfully remove heavy metals from water yet more materials are needed with outstanding adsorption capacity and environmental stability and reusability capabilities (Kalhori et al., 2013; Hacıosmanoğlu et al., 2022). The dual modification process applied in this research presents opportunities to generate an effective adsorbent which could facilitate large-scale water treatment operations. Research findings from this investigation support progress toward developing environmentally friendly and cost-efficient materials used to clean heavy metal pollution in water supplies.

Methods

Results

The unmodified chak’o nano-clay exhibited the lowest surface area, indicating a relatively compact structure with limited adsorption capacity. Upon APTES modification, the surface area increased, suggesting the introduction of functional groups that enhanced surface roughness. The iron oxide-modified nano-clay further increased the surface area, likely due to the formation of iron oxide nanoparticles on the clay surface, which introduced additional porosity. The dual-modified sample (APTES + iron oxide) had the highest surface area, confirming that the combination of both modifications led to a more porous structure. The pore volume showed a gradual increase with modifications, with the dual-modified sample achieving the highest value. This indicated that the incorporation of APTES and iron oxide not only increased surface area but also expanded pore volume, potentially enhancing adsorption efficiency ( Figure 1). Conversely, the average pore diameter followed a declining trend across modifications. The unmodified nano-clay had the highest pore diameter, while the dual-modified sample exhibited the smallest pore size. This reduction suggested that modifications resulted in the formation of smaller, more uniform pores, which could contribute to better metal ion retention. Overall, the modifications successfully increased surface area and pore volume while decreasing pore diameter, which are favorable properties for improving adsorption performance in environmental applications. The dual-modified nano-clay demonstrated the best textural properties, indicating its potential for enhanced adsorption and catalytic performance.

Figure 1. The surface area, pore volume, and pore diameter of modified and unmodified chak’o nano-clay.

The data presented in Table 1 indicates that modifications significantly enhance the physicochemical properties and adsorption efficiency of chak’o nano-clay. The unmodified clay exhibits no magnetic properties and has the lowest electrical conductivity and stability. Functionalization with APTES slightly increases saturation magnetization (4 emu/g) and electrical conductivity (52 arbitrary units), while also improving stability (87%) and heavy metal removal efficiency. The iron oxide modification introduces notable magnetic properties (26 emu/g), higher conductivity (76 arbitrary units), and better stability (93%), enhancing adsorption capacity. The dual-modified nano-clay (APTES + Iron Oxide) exhibits the highest value across all parameters, with a magnetization of 39 emu/g, electrical conductivity of 91 arbitrary units, and almost complete stability (99%), suggesting synergistic effects between APTES and iron oxide in improving material properties. Regarding heavy metal removal efficiency, the unmodified clay shows relatively low adsorption, particularly for Pb²⁺ (45%), As⁵⁺ (50%), and Cd²⁺ (40%). APTES modification enhances removal efficiency across all three metals, with Pb²⁺ reaching 70%, As⁵⁺ at 75%, and Cd²⁺ at 65%, indicating improved surface functionalization. The iron oxide-modified clay further enhances removal, especially for As⁵⁺ (85%) and Cd²⁺ (78%), demonstrating strong metal-chelating interactions. The dual-modified system provides the best removal rates, achieving 98% for Pb²⁺, 97% for As⁵⁺, and 95% for Cd²⁺, highlighting the combined effect of APTES and iron oxide in optimizing adsorption efficiency. These results confirm that dual modification significantly improves both stability and adsorption capacity, making it the most effective material for heavy metal remediation applications.

The adsorption isotherm data indicate that the Qmax values follow an increasing trend with nano-clay modifications, suggesting enhanced adsorption capacities. The unmodified chak’o nano-clay exhibits the lowest Langmuir Qmax value (75 ± 3 mg/g), reflecting its limited adsorption potential. Functionalization with APTES significantly improves the adsorption capacity to 125 ± 4 mg/g, likely due to the introduction of amine groups that increase metal ion affinity ( Figure 2). The iron oxide modification further enhances the adsorption to 140 ± 5 mg/g, suggesting that iron oxide nanoparticles play a crucial role in metal ion complexation. The dual-modified nano-clay (APTES + Iron Oxide) achieves the highest Qmax (185 ± 6 mg/g), demonstrating a synergistic effect between APTES and iron oxide in providing additional adsorption sites and enhancing metal removal efficiency. The Freundlich constant (Kf ) follows a similar trend, indicating improved multilayer adsorption and surface heterogeneity in the modified samples. The Kf value increases from 12.5 ± 1.1 mg/g in unmodified nano-clay to 25.1 ± 1.7 mg/g in the dual-modified system, reinforcing the enhanced adsorption potential. The pseudo-second-order R² values remain high across all samples, ranging from 0.92 ± 0.01 to 0.99 ± 0.01, indicating that the adsorption process is predominantly chemisorption-driven. The highest R² value (0.99) observed in the dual-modified nano-clay confirms that its adsorption mechanism follows a strong chemical interaction model, further supporting its superior performance. These findings suggest that dual-modified chak’o nano-clay is the most efficient adsorbent, making it a promising candidate for heavy metal remediation applications.

Figure 2. Adsorption isotherm and kinetic model parameters.

Figure (3a) showed that at pH 4 and 20°C, the removal efficiency was around 60% for Pb²⁺, 65% for As⁵⁺, and 58% for Cd²⁺. As the pH increased to 10–12 and temperature reached 60°C, the removal efficiency improved significantly to 98% for Pb²⁺, 97% for As⁵⁺, and 95% for Cd²⁺ ( Figure 3a). The trend indicated that alkaline pH and higher temperatures facilitated better adsorption, likely due to reduced competition with H⁺ ions and enhanced interaction between metal ions and adsorbent surfaces. At pH 4 and a contact time of 10 minutes, Pb²⁺ removal was approximately 65%, while As⁵⁺ and Cd²⁺ showed 70% and 60% removal, respectively. As the contact time increased to 180 minutes at pH 10, the removal efficiency reached 99% for Pb²⁺, 99% for As⁵⁺, and 98% for Cd²⁺ ( Figure 3b). The results confirmed that longer contact times allowed more interactions between the adsorbent and metal ions, improving overall adsorption capacity.

Figure 3. The 3D surface plots provided a quantitative analysis of the effects of pH, temperature, contact time, and adsorbent dosage on heavy metal removal efficiency.

At 20°C and a contact time of 10 minutes, Pb²⁺ removal was 68%, As⁵⁺ was 72%, and Cd²⁺ was 65%. When the temperature was increased to 60°C with a contact time of 180 minutes, the removal efficiency improved to 97% for Pb²⁺, 96% for As⁵⁺, and 94% for Cd²⁺ ( Figure 3c). This pattern confirmed that higher temperatures enhanced adsorption, likely due to increased diffusion and surface reactivity. At 20°C and an adsorbent dosage of 0.5 g/L, Pb²⁺ removal was 70%, As⁵⁺ reached 75%, and Cd²⁺ removal was 68%. As the temperature increased to 60°C and the dosage increased to 5 g/L, the removal efficiency reached 98% for Pb²⁺, 98% for As⁵⁺, and 96% for Cd²⁺ ( Figure 3d). The trend indicated that higher adsorbent dosages provided more active sites for metal adsorption, but after a certain dosage, efficiency plateaued due to saturation. Overall, the data confirmed that the optimal conditions for heavy metal removal were pH 10–12, temperature 50–60°C, contact time 120–180 minutes, and adsorbent dosage around 3–5 g/L, where the removal efficiency consistently exceeded 95% for all three metal ions.

In the 1st cycle, the adsorbent exhibited the highest efficiency, with Pb²⁺ reaching 98% (±2), As⁵⁺ at 97% (±2), and Cd²⁺ at 95% (±1) ( Figure 4). This indicated that the adsorbent possessed a high number of available active sites for metal ion binding, allowing maximum adsorption during the initial cycle. As the adsorption process progressed to the 2nd cycle, a slight decline in efficiency was observed. Pb²⁺ removal decreased to 95% (±2), As⁵⁺ removal dropped to 94% (±2), and Cd²⁺ removal was reduced to 92% (±2). This reduction suggested that some of the adsorption sites had been occupied or that partial desorption of metal ions had occurred during reuse. However, the adsorbent still retained a high level of efficiency, making it effective for repeated use ( Figure 4). By the 3rd cycle, the removal efficiencies further declined, with Pb²⁺ at 91% (±3), As⁵⁺ at 90% (±3), and Cd²⁺ at 88% (±3). The decrease in efficiency was more pronounced in Cd²⁺ removal, indicating that the adsorbent's affinity for Cd²⁺ might have been weaker compared to Pb²⁺ and As⁵⁺. The increasing standard deviations in the 3rd cycle suggested that variability in adsorption performance increased with repeated use, likely due to structural degradation of the adsorbent or reduced binding capacity.

Figure 4. Desorption and reusability of adsorbent.

Characterization techniques

FT-IR spectra

The FT-IR spectra provided clear evidence of structural and chemical modifications in chak’o nano-clay after functionalization with APTES and iron oxide (Fe₃O₄). In the unmodified nano-clay, the characteristic O-H stretching vibration was observed at approximately 3620 cm⁻¹, indicating the presence of surface hydroxyl groups within the clay lattice. Additionally, the Si-O-Si stretching vibration around 1040 cm⁻¹ and the Al-OH bending vibration at 910 cm⁻¹ confirmed the aluminosilicate framework of the raw clay. The absence of new peaks suggested that the clay remained chemically unaltered. After APTES modification, new spectral features appeared, confirming successful surface functionalization. The presence of N-H stretching vibrations at ~3300 cm⁻¹ and C-H stretching vibrations at ~2930 cm⁻¹ indicated the incorporation of amine (-NH₂) and alkyl groups from APTES. Furthermore, the peak at ~1640 cm⁻¹ was assigned to amide-like bending, supporting the attachment of APTES molecules to the clay surface ( Figure 5). These changes demonstrated that APTES had chemically bonded to the nano-clay, introducing organic functional groups essential for further modifications. In the iron oxide-modified nano-clay, the appearance of a distinct peak at ~582 cm⁻¹ was attributed to Fe-O stretching vibrations, confirming the successful deposition of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles on the clay surface ( Figure 5). Compared to the unmodified sample, the intensity of the O-H stretching band at ~3620 cm⁻¹ decreased, suggesting interactions between iron oxide and surface hydroxyl groups. Additionally, slight shifts in the Si-O-Si (~1040 cm⁻¹) and Al-OH (~910 cm⁻¹) peaks indicated changes in the clay structure due to iron oxide attachment. The dual-modified nano-clay (APTES + Fe₃O₄) exhibited combined spectral characteristics of both APTES and iron oxide functionalization. The broad O-H stretching peak around ~3436 cm⁻¹ suggested strong hydrogen bonding interactions between surface hydroxyl groups and the functional molecules. The peaks at ~1635 cm⁻¹ (amide bending) and ~1429 cm⁻¹ (C-N stretching) further confirmed the successful incorporation of APTES. Additionally, the presence of Fe-O stretching at ~604 cm⁻¹, 516 cm⁻¹, and 431 cm⁻¹ validated the attachment of iron oxide nanoparticles. Compared to the other spectra, the dual-modified sample showed noticeable peak broadening and baseline shifts, which indicated stronger interactions between the clay, APTES, and Fe₃O₄.

Figure 5. FT-IR spectra analysis of unmodified and modified chak’o nano-clay.

X-ray diffraction analysis

The XRD patterns revealed significant structural changes in chak’o nano-clay after modification with APTES and iron oxide (Fe₃O₄). The unmodified nano-clay exhibited distinct diffraction peaks at approximately 20°, 35°, and 60° (2θ), which were characteristic of the crystalline structure of the natural clay ( Figure 6). These peaks confirmed the presence of an organized silicate framework, with no additional crystalline phases detected. Following APTES modification, a new peak appeared at ~25°, suggesting the successful incorporation of organosilane groups onto the clay surface. The intensity of the 20° and 35° peaks decreased slightly, indicating a degree of structural intercalation caused by APTES molecules. This change suggested that APTES had interacted with the clay structure, possibly through covalent bonding with surface hydroxyl groups. In the iron oxide-modified nano-clay, additional peaks emerged at ~30° and 55°, confirming the presence of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles. The peak at ~60° exhibited a notable increase in intensity, further supporting the deposition of iron oxide on the clay surface. These changes indicated that Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles were successfully integrated while maintaining the primary structure of the clay. The dual-modified nano-clay (APTES + Fe₃O₄) exhibited diffraction patterns that combined features from both APTES and Fe₃O₄ modifications. The peaks at ~28° and 50° validated the presence of iron oxide, while the peaks at ~25° and 45° confirmed the retention of APTES functionality. Peak broadening was observed, suggesting increased structural reorganization due to the combined effects of organic and inorganic modifications. The presence of reference peaks aligned with known diffraction positions for silicate minerals and iron oxides, further verifying the successful functionalization of chak’o nano-clay. Overall, the XRD analysis confirmed that the modifications with APTES and Fe₃O₄ induced structural shifts, peak broadening, and intensity variations, while largely preserving the crystalline nature of the clay. These findings suggested that the modified nano-clay retained its adsorption capabilities while gaining functionalized properties suitable for enhanced water treatment applications.

Figure 6. The structural characteristics of chak’o nano-clay of various surface modifications.

Dynamic light scattering

The Dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements provided insights into the particle size distribution of unmodified and modified Chak’o nano-clay, confirming changes in hydrodynamic size due to APTES and Fe₃O₄ modifications. The unmodified nano-clay exhibited a primary peak around 200 nm, indicating its native particle size distribution. A secondary peak appeared at ~600 nm, likely due to agglomeration of clay particles in dispersion ( Figure 7). The distribution suggested that the unmodified clay maintained a relatively uniform size, with minor aggregation. After APTES modification, the primary peak shifted slightly to ~250 nm, while the secondary peak at ~650 nm became more pronounced. This shift indicated a slight increase in particle size, likely due to surface functionalization with APTES molecules. The broader distribution suggested that APTES led to minor particle clustering, possibly due to hydrogen bonding or silane interactions. The iron oxide-modified nano-clay displayed a further shift in particle size, with the main peak appearing at ~300 nm and a broader secondary peak around 700 nm. The increase in size was attributed to the attachment of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles to the clay surface, increasing the overall hydrodynamic diameter. The broader secondary peak suggested partial aggregation due to magnetic interactions between Fe₃O₄-coated clay particles. The dual-modified (APTES + Fe₃O₄) nano-clay exhibited the largest particle size distribution, with the primary peak at ~350 nm and a broad secondary peak around 750 nm. The significant increase in particle size confirmed the combined effects of APTES and Fe₃O₄ modifications, which led to a thicker functional layer on the clay surface. The broader size distribution indicated that dual-functionalized particles exhibited higher aggregation, possibly due to stronger surface interactions and magnetic attractions.

Figure 7. Particle size distributions of chak’o nano-clay before and after various surface modifications.

Discussion

The results from the various modifications to chak’o nano-clay demonstrated a significant enhancement in both its structural properties and heavy metal adsorption capacity, which are crucial for applications in environmental remediation. The modifications, namely APTES and iron oxide functionalization, were found to significantly improve the physicochemical characteristics of nano-clay, such as surface area, pore volume, and adsorption efficiency, while maintaining the inherent properties of the clay that make it suitable for these applications. The unmodified chak’o nano-clay exhibited relatively low surface area and pore volume, indicating a compact structure with limited adsorption potential. This observation aligns with the findings of previous studies, where unmodified clay typically exhibits limited surface area and adsorptive capacity due to the lack of functional groups that would enhance metal ion binding (Abd-ElFattah et al., 2025). The relatively larger pore diameter of the unmodified clay, despite its relatively larger pores, likely contributed to inefficient heavy metal retention, as these larger pores might not provide sufficient binding sites for effective adsorption (Tchakounte et al., 2024). Modification of the nano-clay with APTES resulted in a marked improvement in surface area and pore volume. APTES functionalization introduces amine and alkyl groups, which likely enhance surface roughness and create additional binding sites for metal ions. APTES has been widely reported to improve adsorption capacities in materials by increasing the number of functional groups available for metal ion binding (Kuśmierek et al., 2025). This was reflected in the higher adsorption efficiency, with Pb²⁺ removal increasing to 70%, As⁵⁺ removal reaching 75%, and Cd²⁺ removal improving to 65%. The increased surface area and enhanced chemical reactivity of the APTES-modified nano-clay facilitated better metal ion interactions, thus improving the material's adsorption capacity (Hu et al., 2024). The introduction of iron oxide nanoparticles onto the nano-clay surface further improved its adsorption capabilities. Iron oxide-modified nano-clay exhibited a significant increase in both surface area and magnetic properties, which were reflected in its enhanced adsorption efficiency. Iron oxide is well known for its metal-chelating properties, and this modification likely improved the retention of metal ions, particularly for As⁵⁺ and Cd²⁺, which showed removal efficiencies of 85% and 78%, respectively (Gulcin and Alwasel, 2022; Cherrak et al., 2016). The magnetic properties of iron oxide are also beneficial for easy separation after adsorption, making it a highly desirable modification for practical water treatment applications (Gutierrez et al., 2017). The dual-modified chak’o nano-clay, which combined both APTES and iron oxide modifications, demonstrated the most significant improvements in surface area, pore volume, and adsorption efficiency. This combination led to a porous structure with an abundance of functional groups that offered multiple sites for metal ion binding, resulting in the highest removal efficiencies for all three metals—98% for Pb²⁺, 97% for As⁵⁺, and 95% for Cd²⁺. Previous studies have demonstrated the synergistic effects of combining organic functional groups with inorganic materials such as iron oxide, which enhances the overall metal ion adsorption capacity and the material's stability (Mohamad Nor et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2018). The adsorption isothermal data further supported the enhanced performance of the modified nano-clay. The Langmuir Qmax values followed an increasing trend, with the dual-modified nano-clay exhibiting the highest Qmax (185 ± 6 mg/g). This suggests that the dual modification not only increased the surface area but also provided additional adsorption sites, resulting in a higher capacity for metal ion removal. Similar trends have been observed in other studies where surface modifications with both organic and inorganic functional groups led to increased adsorption capacities (Rostami et al., 2024). The Freundlich constant (Kf ) also demonstrated a similar trend, with the dual-modified system exhibiting the highest value, reinforcing the enhanced multilayer adsorption and surface heterogeneity of the material (Yaffar et al., 2025). Kinetic analysis, as indicated by the high R² values for the pseudo-second-order model, confirmed that the adsorption process was chemisorption-driven for all the samples, with the dual-modified nano-clay showing the strongest chemical interaction with the metal ions. This is consistent with the observed higher removal efficiencies for the dual-modified sample and highlights its potential for efficient and rapid adsorption of metal ions in practical applications (Sivasubramanian et al., 2024). The effect of pH, temperature, and contact time on the adsorption efficiency further confirmed the advantages of the dual-modified chak’o nano-clay. The optimal conditions for metal ion removal were observed at alkaline pH (10-12) and elevated temperatures (50-60°C), which facilitated better metal ion interaction by reducing competition from H⁺ ions and enhancing the reactivity of the adsorbent. Similar results have been reported, where alkaline conditions improve the adsorption efficiency of metal ions due to the reduction in proton competition and the increased availability of metal-binding sites on the adsorbent surface (Chen et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2025). Longer contact times and higher adsorbent dosages also resulted in improved removal efficiencies, confirming that the adsorption process was both time- and dosage-dependent (Hamad et al., 2024). Furthermore, the reusability tests demonstrated that the dual-modified nano-clay maintained a high level of efficiency even after multiple adsorption cycles. While there was a slight decrease in removal efficiency after each cycle, the material still showed excellent performance in the second cycle and retained good efficiency in the third cycle, particularly for Pb²⁺ and As⁵⁺. The decreasing efficiency, particularly for Cd²⁺, may be attributed to the weakening of adsorption sites or partial desorption during reuse, but the material’s stability and effectiveness in subsequent cycles confirm its potential for long-term applications in wastewater treatment (Zhao et al., 2024). Characterization techniques such as FT-IR, XRD, and DLS provided crucial insights into the structural changes occurring during modification. FT-IR spectra revealed the successful functionalization of the clay surface with APTES and iron oxide, indicating that both modifications were effectively integrated (Santhosh et al., 2024). XRD analysis further confirmed the successful deposition of iron oxide nanoparticles and the incorporation of organosilane groups, while DLS measurements showed changes in the particle size distribution, with the dual-modified sample exhibiting the largest particle size, consistent with the added functional layers (Long, et al., 2024).

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results from this study demonstrate that the dual modification of chak’o nano-clay with APTES and iron oxide significantly enhances its physicochemical properties, including surface area, pore volume, and adsorption capacity for heavy metal ions. The introduction of APTES functional groups and iron oxide nanoparticles effectively increases surface roughness, creates additional functional sites, and improves the overall stability and reusability of the material. Among all the modified samples, the dual-modified chak’o nano-clay exhibited the highest adsorption efficiency for Pb²⁺, As⁵⁺, and Cd²⁺, with removal efficiencies of 98%, 97%, and 95%, respectively, confirming the synergistic effects of both modifications. The findings suggest that the dual-modified nano-clay not only improves the material’s adsorption capacity but also provides favorable textural and structural properties that are essential for environmental remediation applications. Additionally, the material demonstrated good reusability, maintaining high removal efficiencies even after multiple adsorption cycles. This reusability makes the dual-modified chak’o nano-clay a promising and sustainable adsorbent for the removal of heavy metals from contaminated water. Overall, the dual-modified chak’o nano-clay offers a highly efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly solution for heavy metal remediation. These results highlight the potential of this modified nano-clay for practical applications in water treatment, contributing to the development of advanced adsorbents for sustainable environmental management.

Ethics and consent

Ethical approval and consent were not required.

Authors contribution

All authors contributed equally in the current paper.