The effects of emotional intelligence training programs on educators: a systematic review

1.1 Concepts of emotional intelligence

Reference [15] posits that the notion of Emotional Intelligence (EI) emerged from Thorndike’s concept of social intelligence in 1920 and Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory in 1983. Salovey and Mayer officially introduced the phrase in 1990, defining it as the ability to perceive, utilize, comprehend, and regulate emotions. In 1995, Goleman expanded the definition to include aspects like motivation and social skills.¹⁶

The neurological basis of emotional intelligence, as proposed by LeDoux (1996),¹⁷ involves the interaction between the amygdala and the neocortex, which supports emotional regulation in cognitive and social processes.¹⁸ This neuroscientific perspective supports the idea that emotional intelligence (EI) is a skill that can be developed and improved.¹⁹

This field has evolved through various models, including the ability model proposed by Mayer and Salovey²⁰ the trait model by Petrides and Furnham,²¹ and Bar-On’s²² emotional quotient. However, discussions regarding the validity and measurement of these models persist.

Fernández-Berrocal and Extremera²³ propose a comprehensive approach that emphasizes the dual role of emotional intelligence in managing emotions and optimizing cognitive processes and personal development.²⁴ Subsequently, they contributed to emotional intelligence research within the Hispanic context by adapting and validating measurement instruments and examining their application in educational environments.

Mayer et al.²⁵ refined their four-branch model, comprising (1) emotional perception, (2) emotional facilitation of thinking, (3) emotional understanding, and (4) emotional regulation. Bar-On²² highlights the relationship between emotional and social competencies, whereas Petrides²¹ characterize emotional intelligence as a personality trait.²⁶

Emotional intelligence has become increasingly recognized as a crucial competency for educators within the educational framework. Vesely-Maillefer and Saklofske²⁷ indicate that emotional intelligence (EI) in educators encompasses the regulation of personal emotions and the establishment of emotionally intelligent classroom environments, facilitating the holistic development of both educators and students.²⁸ In the digital era, amid the growing demands of teacher training, this skill is essential for enhancing teachers’ personal well-being and professional satisfaction, as well as for reducing work-related stress and promoting students’ socioemotional learning.^29,30

Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) offers a structured educational framework aimed at enhancing emotional and social competencies in individuals of all ages. CASEL, established by Daniel Goleman and Eileen Rockefeller Growald, has delineated five fundamental SEL competencies: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making.³¹ The RULER approach developed by the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence emphasizes the significance of recognizing, understanding, labeling, expressing, and regulating emotions. This framework advocates for the integration of social and emotional learning (SEL) in educational settings to enhance the well-being of all participants.³²

Mindfulness initiatives in education, as advocated by Jennings, Roeser, and Lantieri,³³ alongside the principles of positive psychology proposed by Duckworth et al.,³⁴ have incorporated mindfulness practices into social-emotional learning (SEL), emphasizing their effects on emotional regulation and teacher well-being. This viewpoint is substantiated by affective neuroscience,³⁵ which provides a scientific foundation for comprehending the neural networks engaged in these practices. These elements are essential for 21st-century education, as the cultivation of socioemotional skills and mindfulness corresponds with the requirements of digital learning and artificial intelligence in the classroom, promoting an emotionally intelligent and adaptive educational environment.

The integration of emotional intelligence, social-emotional learning, and mindfulness in teacher training underscores a comprehensive approach that addresses current educational demands, enhancing both teacher well-being and the quality of the teaching environment in response to modern challenges.

2.1 Extraction and analysis of data

To ensure article relevance and quality, the following inclusion criteria were used: (1) Studies from 2013-2024. (2) Quantitative and/or qualitative research on emotional intelligence (EI) education or training programs and practices for pre-service or in-service teachers ensures a complete understanding of their influence. (3) Articles with actual data on program or strategy efficacy are included. Four studies involve pre-service or in-service instructors in educational intervention. The data from the literature review process, strategies and programs for developing Emotional Intelligence, the PRISMA checkboard and the process flow diagram have been published by Ref. [38] and are located in the availability section.

The article exclusion process occurred in multiple stages. Out of 235 articles, 107 were excluded from review to identify potentially relevant studies based on the established criteria. The selected articles (n = 97) underwent a thorough evaluation involving a comprehensive reading and analysis of each document to ascertain their relevance and quality. Theoretical studies lacking empirical data, intervention, or a focus on the teaching population in training or practice were excluded from consideration.

The analysis of the final articles (n = 67) (see Table 2) involved a bibliometric review utilizing bibliometrix, a scientific mapping and analysis tool that employs quantitative and descriptive techniques to assess academic production. This approach yields indicators related to regional production, prominent authors, strategic topics, key concepts, and significant collaboration nodes.³⁹ This analysis offers a comprehensive overview of the existing research landscape in this field.

To enhance the validity and reliability of the findings, qualitative and quantitative data from each article were organized in a matrix, facilitating the identification of strategies and programs developed for promoting emotional intelligence in teacher training. This record enabled the identification of their defining elements. Ethical approval is not required for this article.

3.1 Global overview of scientific production in teacher education within early intervention

This review indicates a pronounced concentration of research in the subject of IE within teacher training across several regions. From 2013 to 2024, the United States (USA) notably dominates with the biggest number of publications (15 articles), but Spain, with 11 articles, also constitutes a majority relative to other nations. This may signify a significant interest and investment in emotional intelligence development initiatives in these nations (refer to Figure 2).

Figure 2. Geographic distribution of scientific output.

Countries such as Israel and Finland each contributed 4 pieces, while Australia, Germany, Poland, Sweden, and the United Kingdom each contributed 2 articles. Countries with a solitary contribution, each comprising one article, include Canada, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Thailand, Ukraine, and Ecuador. While leadership is apparent in specific Northern Hemisphere nations, the geographical variety of the publications indicates an increasing global interest in incorporating emotional intelligence into both initial and continuous teacher training. The minimal academic production in Latin America is notable, underscoring the necessity to promote regional research, particularly in educational settings that demand culturally and socially tailored curricula.

3.2 Key nodes in EI teacher training

The importance of emotional competences in teacher professional development programs is highlighted by the co-occurrence analysis of studies on emotional intelligence and teacher training, which shows a dense network of related concepts including emotional intelligence, teacher training, and education. Similarly, studies show how emotional management affects teaching, emphasizing its essential role in teachers’ health and stress reduction to support productive professional growth^40–43 (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Co-ocurrence authors keywords.

The primary ideas include teacher training, emotional intelligence, teacher education, and social-emotional learning, demonstrating a significant alignment between pedagogical instruction and the cultivation of emotional competencies. These concepts are categorized alongside mindfulness, well-being, emotional competence, and emotion regulation, indicating an increasing interest in holistic training methodologies^41,44 that integrate socio-emotional skills, self-regulation, and teacher mental health.

The map also illustrates the distribution of emerging subfields in tiny clusters. As an illustration, the terms “initial teacher education,” “learning to teach,” and “emotions and teacher development” indicate a particular emphasis on initial training. Conversely, another group establishes a connection between education policy, teacher training, and education research, linking the phenomenon to institutional and educational policy frameworks. This thematic diversity is indicative of a shift in the field from individual interventions to more systemic and strategic models, which are designed to enhance the quality of education by addressing the affective underpinnings of teaching.⁴⁰

3.3 Teacher training evolution and dynamics in IE

This section outlines the evolution and current significance of strategic topics in teacher training related to emotional intelligence (see Figure 4). Well-being and mindfulness are crucial components in programs aimed at enhancing teacher self-regulation.⁴⁵

Figure 4. Thematic map.

Topics characterized by low density yet high centrality, including teacher education, social-emotional learning, and professional development, while essential, necessitate enhanced conceptual and methodological refinement to fortify their approaches and guarantee their applicability across diverse educational contexts.⁴⁶ These themes serve as pivotal axis of the subject, however their internal growth remains rudimentary in relation to their structural significance.

Conversely, niche topics, including education innovation, education programs, and initial teacher education, are identified. These topics exhibit thematic specialization and a certain level of development, but they have minimal connection to central debates in the field, which restricts their systemic impact.⁴⁷ Despite the fact that these lines are active, they must be connected to the primary axes of emotional intelligence in order to achieve increased visibility and practical application.

On the other hand, subjects including intervention, teacher-student relationships, and teacher professional development display low centrality and density, potentially indicating diminished interest or regions currently undergoing consolidation. Nonetheless, their transformative potential in educational practice indicates that they could be reengaged from novel formative or investigative viewpoints. The field’s diversity and dynamism are affirmed, since it encompasses both established domains and those that are emerging or remain marginal.⁴⁸

3.4 Trends and new directions in IE teacher education

The examined data exposes important patterns in the body of research on emotional intelligence and teacher preparation (see Figure 5). With 14 and 11 mentions respectively, teacher training and emotional intelligence stand out as main axis in the growth of emotional competences within teacher preparation. Their continuity over time emphasizes their conceptual and pragmatic weight on the present research agenda.

Figure 5. Trend topics.

Teacher education and social-emotional learning, with 11 and 8 mentions respectively, demonstrate a consistent presence through 2024, indicating their growing incorporation into training programs and alignment with pedagogical frameworks focused on the holistic development of educators.⁴⁹ Similarly, mindfulness and well-being, each cited six times, have emerged as topics of contemporary interest associated with the enhancement of emotional well-being in educational settings.

Collectively, these developments signify a persistent evolution in the domain, advancing towards a more holistic perspective of pedagogical practice, whereby emotional development is regarded as a fundamental element in both initial training and professional growth.^46,50

3.5 Cooperation and research in the field

The analysis of collaboration networks among authors allows for the identification of key interconnections in the scientific production on emotional intelligence in teacher training (see Figure 6). Consolidated collaboration structures are highlighted, in which certain authors act as central nodes in the mediation and dissemination of knowledge. In particular, Pozo-Rico, Brown, Oh, and Barrett position themselves as prominent figures in the network, suggesting their strategic role in the integration of approaches and the articulation of different research currents in this field.

Figure 6. Academic collaboration networks.

The closeness among players such as Baker-Henningham, Vera-Hernández, and Alderman signifies a unified network of direct and effective communication, promoting the swift exchange of ideas, outcomes, and conceptual frameworks. This form of dense connectivity is particularly pertinent in interdisciplinary domains such as emotional education, where active collaboration fosters both theoretical and practical progress.

On the other hand, authors such as Carstensen, Klusmann, Fincias, and Conde stand out as important nodes that, despite having fewer relationships, hold a key place as possible opinion leaders. Their presence shows that they can help guide new lines of study and find solutions to problems that are happening now in the area of teacher emotional training. This collaboration network shows how the area is slowly coming together, showing both the shared work and the different study teams from different places and institutions.

3.6 Results addressing question 1: What strategies and programs for teacher training in emotional intelligence have been implemented from 2013 to 2024?

Over the past decade, teacher training in emotional intelligence has become crucial, emphasizing the development of social-emotional competencies that impact teacher well-being and foster healthier classroom environments. The implemented strategies and programs encompass various approaches, including mindfulness-based interventions and innovative educational methodologies.⁵¹ The following outlines key strategies and programs in this field.

3.6.1 Mindfulness and SEL: A powerful combination in teacher emotional training

Mindfulness programs combined with Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) improve emotional teacher training, especially in self-awareness, self-regulation, and emotional management. Jones and Doolittle⁵² say SEL promotes emotional competences like empathy, responsible decision-making, and good relationships. Mindfulness in these programs improves SEL,⁵³ helping instructors focus, regulate emotions, and handle classroom issues.

Mindfulness improves emotional self-regulation, helping teachers handle stress in a changing educational environment. Research shows that Mindfulness-Based Programs (MBP) and Tuning in to Kids improve teachers’ emotional skills and resilience in stressful situations.⁵⁴ According to Meiklejohn et al.,⁴⁵ mindfulness training for teachers increases their emotional well-being and student interaction management, creating a happy learning environment. This combination improves teachers’ emotional control and lesson quality and environment.

3.6.2 Integration of online models for SEL training

The digitization of education has transformed access to EI training for teachers, providing new opportunities via virtual environments. The integration of SEL in these models has shown benefits, enabling teachers to develop essential skills like self-management and empathy interactively and flexibly.⁵⁵ Virtual environments enable teachers to engage in simulations that mimic real educational scenarios, offering a safe space for reflection on emotional responses and enhancement of emotional regulation skills.^56,57

Online learning platforms facilitate ongoing reflection and feedback, essential for teachers to assess their development in social-emotional competencies.⁵⁸ These tools facilitate repeated practice and self-assessment, essential for incorporating SEL skills into teaching. Virtual simulations are an effective strategy for preparing teachers for complex situations, offering practical experience in applying social-emotional strategies in their work environment. This enhances emotional well-being and boosts confidence in managing classroom dynamics effectively.

3.6.3 Emotion diaries: An essential resource for emotional intelligence

Teacher training programmes that promote self-awareness and emotional understanding use emotion journals.²⁴ Daily reflective writing helps teachers recognise and evaluate their emotions in diverse settings, improving their understanding of how they affect classroom performance and student interactions.⁵⁹ Self-reflection helps teachers regulate emotions in high-stress situations by identifying emotional patterns.⁶⁰

Emotion journals enhance empathy and understanding. Teacher reflection on emotional experiences helps them comprehend classroom dynamics. This knowledge helps teachers manage relationships and assist children’ emotional growth in a collaborative and empathic classroom. Bravo-Sánchez⁴⁶ notes that documenting and reflecting on feelings helps teachers create an emotionally healthy learning environment, enhancing school morale and productivity.

Emotional diaries help teachers self-assess their emotional development.²⁴ Reviewing their entries helps individuals discover emotional regulation improvements and issues.⁶¹ This lays the groundwork for individualized measures to improve emotional coping and classroom well-being.²⁴

3.6.4 Brief programs

Short-term teacher training programs, lasting 2 to 7 weeks, effectively enhance emotional competencies, though their influence on student academic performance is still debated.²⁶ These programs enable teachers to quickly gain essential tools for managing emotions and promoting a healthy learning environment.⁶² Concerns exist regarding the sustainability of these interventions and their long-term effects, necessitating further research to assess whether enhancements in teacher well-being lead to lasting academic benefits for students.^63,64

3.6.5 Emotional literacy: Initiatives that enhance educators and learning environments

Programs aimed at enhancing emotional intelligence in teachers, particularly those with extended duration and ongoing support, have demonstrated beneficial outcomes for personal well-being and the emotional atmosphere in classrooms. Initiatives like EL4VET, CASEL, and CARE have effectively fostered essential emotional competencies via emotional literacy. These programs enhance self-awareness and emotional management, directly influencing the quality of teacher-student interactions.¹⁴

3.7 Results addressing question 2: What defines an emotional intelligence program for teacher training?

Programs focused on emotional intelligence in teacher training are essential for personal and professional growth. A systematic review of the selected articles revealed common characteristics that enhance the effectiveness of these programs and their impact on teachers’ socio-emotional skills.

3.7.1 Theoretical and practical components of IE programs

Effective emotional intelligence programs in teacher training combine theoretical and practical elements to cultivate socio-emotional skills comprehensively and sustainably.⁶⁵ Essential elements include improving emotional awareness, regulation, empathy, and the ability to establish positive interpersonal relationships.⁶⁶ Programs generally begin by establishing a solid theoretical foundation, focusing on understanding personal and others’ emotions and analyzing their emotional impact on classroom dynamics.

Mindfulness and conscious reflection are recommended to improve self-regulation, self-care, and emotional resilience in teachers. Mindfulness is a crucial approach for managing stress and improving awareness, directly influencing teaching quality and the emotional climate of the classroom. Assertive communication and conflict resolution techniques are examined, enabling effective management of complex situations.⁶⁷

The programs enhance teachers’ emotional understanding and management, enabling them to recognize and respond to students’ emotions, thus fostering empathetic interactions and promoting an inclusive learning environment.²⁴ Ongoing monitoring, feedback, and practice are essential for maintaining and applying emotional competencies acquired during training in professional settings.

3.7.2 Incorporation of novel educational methods for EI

Innovative educational methodologies in teacher training programs improve teachers’ emotional well-being and skills.⁶⁸ These methodologies go beyond traditional instruction, incorporating strategies that promote active, participatory, and reflective learning about emotions and interpersonal relationships in the classroom.⁶⁹ Project-Based Learning (PBL) allows teachers to collaboratively tackle real or simulated problems, enhancing skills such as empathy, collaboration, and emotional self-regulation.⁷⁰

Simulation-based learning is essential for developing emotional competencies in realistic, controlled settings. Educators participate in both in-person and virtual simulations that address emotionally charged scenarios, such as student conflicts and disciplinary matters.⁵⁷ This experience improves decision-making, stress management, and emotional regulation.⁵⁶ Online simulations offer considerable flexibility, allowing teachers to practice and receive feedback in a secure, controlled environment.⁷¹

Reflection-Based Learning exemplifies an innovative approach, wherein educators record their emotions in diaries to assess their influence on classroom dynamics and student interactions. This methodology improves emotional self-awareness and helps teachers identify emotional patterns affecting their educational practice.⁷² The integration of these methods with community engagement facilitates experience and strategy exchange, creating a supportive environment for teachers to collaboratively enhance their emotional competencies.⁴¹

3.7.3 Self-awareness and self-regulation training

Self-awareness and emotional self-regulation training are essential components of teacher education programs, as these skills are vital for handling the profession’s emotional demands.²⁶ These interventions, aimed at recognizing and managing emotions, positively influence teacher resilience and effectiveness. Self-awareness enables teachers to identify their emotional responses in challenging situations, facilitating better behavior regulation and adaptive responses.⁷³

Emotional self-regulation during stress is essential for teachers’ well-being and fostering a positive learning environment.⁷⁴ Training programs equip teachers with essential tools to handle the stress and frustrations of teaching, leading to improved student interactions and enhanced classroom stability.⁷⁵ Studies indicate that enhancing these skills improves teachers’ emotional well-being and indirectly benefits students’ academic performance by fostering a more positive school climate.⁵³

3.7.4 Adaptation to online learning settings

The adaptation of emotional intelligence training programs to virtual platforms is a crucial aspect in today’s digitalized educational landscape.^29,55 Virtual teaching not only facilitates access to training but also offers new opportunities for teachers to develop emotional competencies in an interactive and contextualized way.⁷⁶ Programs utilizing digital tools, including online simulations and collaborative platforms, are as effective as in-person methods in developing socio-emotional skills like self-regulation, empathy, and stress management.^24,77

Virtual environments offer personalized and flexible experiences tailored to the specific needs of educators. Online simulations allow participants to engage with and analyze complex scenarios.⁵⁷ Simulations, along with self-reflection exercises and group feedback, are comparable to face-to-face sessions in fostering emotional competencies, while allowing for the repetition and revision of exercises as necessary.^57,76

Online collaborative learning platforms enable real-time interaction among teachers, fostering experience exchange and the development of practice communities that support sustained emotional and professional growth.^16,78 Virtual communities offer emotional and professional support, enhancing the incorporation of emotional skills in education. Adapting programs to virtual environments enhances accessibility and relevance in educational technology.^79,80

3.7.5 Programs with a flexible duration and structure

Diverse in duration and structure, emotional intelligence training programs can be easily adapted to various educational contexts. The flexible duration enables teachers to engage with these programs based on their needs and availability, facilitating emotional skill development even in time-limited situations.¹²

3.7.6 Impact on well-being and emotional efficacy

Emotional intelligence programs for teacher training significantly enhance teachers’ overall well-being.⁵⁴ These programs aim to enhance emotional competencies, promote mental health balance, and strengthen resilience to daily school demands.⁸¹ Teaching strategies like stress management, emotional self-regulation, and enhancing emotional awareness equip educators to handle the demands of their profession, reducing emotional exhaustion and burnout symptoms.²⁶

These programs enhance self-efficacy and professional confidence, leading to a greater sense of control over the work environment and improved management of challenging situations.⁸² The positive effect on teacher well-being enhances job satisfaction and quality of life, contributing to the development of collaborative learning environments.^83,84

3.7.7 Continuous support and sustainability

Ongoing support mechanisms are crucial in emotional intelligence training for teachers. Initial training alone is inadequate for developing emotional competencies; a support system is essential for teachers to effectively consolidate and apply these skills in real educational contexts.^78,82 Studies show that programs with continuous follow-up components, such as regular feedback, mentoring, and community access, significantly improve the retention and enhancement of skills.^28,51,81

Ongoing mentoring fosters reflection and adaptation of emotional strategies to meet the distinct challenges teachers face in their daily practice.⁸⁵ Communities of practice provide a venue for experience sharing and peer support, facilitating a safe space for exploring self-regulation and stress management strategies.⁵⁹ These communities allow participants to evaluate and adjust their emotional strategies, promoting collaborative learning that improves program sustainability.³²

Personalized mentoring is essential for developing emotional competencies, offering expert guidance to tackle individual challenges, refine goals, and evaluate progress consistently. Supportive elements enhance emotional competencies, integral to teachers’ professional identity, thereby improving their well-being and that of the educational community over time.⁶³ Sustainability strategies frame emotional intelligence programs as vital elements of teachers’ professional development, rather than as standalone interventions.

3.7.8 Measurement is essential

This review outlines measurement tools, such as questionnaires, scales, and tests, for assessing emotional intelligence in teacher training.

Among the tools used were: a) EQ-i (Emotional Quotient Inventory), which consists of a self-reported questionnaire that measures emotional competencies in several dimensions; b) The MSCEIT test (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test), which is an assessment tool based on the ability to measure emotional intelligence as a set of skills; c) the TESC scale (Teacher Emotional Self-Competency Scale), used to measure the emotional competence of teachers; d) CPI (Classroom Performance Inventory) which relates the emotional competence of teachers with classroom performance; e) The SEL Competency Checklist, which is a tool to measure competencies in social-emotional learning in teachers, specifically in educational contexts; f ) The TMMS (Trait Meta-Mood Scale), a self-assessment scale that measures emotional clarity, emotional attention and emotional repair; g) The WLEIS (Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale), used to measure emotional intelligence through four dimensions: self-regulation, emotional perception, use of emotions and emotional facilitation; h) Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI), a tool based on self-assessment and peer assessment to measure emotional competence in an organizational environment.

The systematic review showed that most studies using these tools report reliability indices (Cronbach’s alpha) generally above 0.80, indicating strong internal consistency. Contextual validation is sometimes deemed essential depending on the teaching population.

The research indicates improved student performance and enhanced emotional well-being among teachers. The cultivation of emotional competencies in teachers enhances their professional lives and improves student performance, creating a positive cycle in education.