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Research Article

Temporal Focus, Depression, and Life Satisfaction: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Israelis and Indians

[version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]
PUBLISHED 02 Sep 2025
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This article is included in the Sociology of Health gateway.

Abstract

Background

Temporal focus, a construct in positive psychology, refers to the extent to which individuals concentrate on past, present, or future events. Emerging adulthood is a critical period for identity development and mental health. This study examined the relationships between temporal focus, mental health (depression and anxiety), and life satisfaction among emerging adults in two culturally distinct countries: Israel and India. The role of nationality as a moderating factor was also explored.

Methods

A cross-sectional design was employed, involving 373 participants (194 from Israel and 179 from India). Standardized instruments were used, including the Temporal Focus Scale, the Satisfaction with Life Scale, and the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) for depression and anxiety. Correlational and mediation analyses were conducted, and cultural differences were assessed.

Results

Past and future temporal focus were positively correlated with depression and anxiety in both cultural groups. Present focus was positively associated with life satisfaction, particularly among Indian participants. Cultural comparisons revealed that Indian participants reported a stronger orientation toward both past and future focus, while Israeli participants demonstrated higher overall life satisfaction. Mediation analysis indicated that depression and anxiety mediated the relationship between future focus and life satisfaction across both groups.

Conclusions

The findings highlight the importance of temporal focus in shaping mental health outcomes and life satisfaction among emerging adults. A balanced temporal orientation may support psychological well-being. Additionally, cultural differences in temporal focus patterns suggest that mental health interventions for young adults may benefit from cultural tailoring to improve their effectiveness

Keywords

Temporal focus, life satisfaction, depression, anxiety, cross-cultural comparison, positive psychology, emerging adults, India, Israel, mental health interventions, cultural differences.

Statement of limitations

This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the use of a cross-sectional design limits our ability to conclude cause-and-effect relationships between temporal focus, mental health, and life satisfaction. Second, while we used validated scales, construct validity could be affected by cultural differences in how participants from Israel and India interpret survey items. Third, although our sample size was sufficient, the statistical power may have been influenced by unequal group sizes and gender imbalances, particularly the predominance of female participants in both cultural groups. Additionally, while we identified significant associations, common method bias may have affected responses due to the use of self-report measures. Lastly, external validity is limited by the specific age range and demographic characteristics of the sample, which consisted of university students and young adults. As such, the findings may not generalize to older populations or other cultural settings. Future studies should use longitudinal designs, consider additional cultural variables, and include more diverse and representative samples to strengthen generalizability.

Introduction

Emerging adulthood, typically defined as the period from the late teens to the mid-twenties, is a critical stage for identity development, exploration, and the navigation of life transitions (Arnett et al., 2014). During this period, individuals often face uncertainty regarding career choices, relationships, and future prospects, negatively affecting their mental health and subjective well-being. Temporal focus, or the orientation of attention towards past, present, or future events, has been shown to play a pivotal role in how individuals cope with these uncertainties (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). A future-oriented temporal focus is often associated with goal-setting, planning, and resilience, and these traits can contribute to positive mental health outcomes (Shipp & Aeon, 2019). However, an excessive focus on future uncertainties can lead to increased anxiety and depression, diminishing life satisfaction. In contrast, a balanced temporal focus, incorporating positive elements of past, present, and future orientations, has been linked to higher life satisfaction and reduced psychological distress (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).

This study investigated the influence of temporal focus, a construct within the field of positive psychology, on the relationship between anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction among emerging adults. Specifically, we examined the moderating role of nationality (comparing India and Israel) and gender on these relationships. India is characterized by a collectivist culture emphasizing social harmony, family obligations, and long-term planning (Hofstede, 2011). In this context, emerging adults may experience societal pressures to meet familial and societal expectations, amplifying their focus on both past events and future goals (Sircova et al., 2014). Such pressures can contribute to heightened anxiety and stress, particularly around future uncertainties, potentially detracting from present life satisfaction. Israel is a more individualistic society, where personal autonomy, resilience, and present-focused well-being are emphasized (Schwartz et al., 2010). Emerging adults in Israel may be more inclined to prioritize individual goals and present experiences, buffering the negative psychological effects of anxiety and depression and fostering higher life satisfaction. However, Israeli youth also face significant pressures related to economic, educational, and national security concerns, which could intensify future-oriented thinking and its associated stress (Walter, Kasler, & Routray, 2024b).

This study aimed to deepen the understanding of the complex interactions between cultural context, temporal focus, and mental health in emerging adulthood. We hypothesized future temporal focus would buffer the negative effects of anxiety and depression on life satisfaction, contributing to greater well-being among emerging adults (Khan et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2022). We further proposed that cultural context (India vs Israel) would influence the nature of these relationships, with implications for tailored mental health interventions.

Literature review

Temporal focus

Temporal focus refers to how individuals subjectively experience time, or their psychological view of the past, present, and future (Lewin, 1943; Shipp et al., 2009). Boniwell and Zimbardo (2015) argued an imbalance in an individual’s subjective view of time may be detrimental to psychological health. Indeed, focusing primarily on the past has been linked to poor psychological health compared to focusing on the future (Shipp & Aeon, 2019). Using hierarchical cluster analysis, McKay et al. (2017) found past focus clusters were related to higher levels of anxiety. Interestingly some research has found temporal focusing is related to meaning in life and hope (Miao et al., 2021). There is also mounting evidence of the impact of temporal focus on mental health (Zhou et al., 2022). Shipp and associates (2022) presented a revised approach to the concept of temporal focus by suggesting profiles of temporal focus might be more useful than efforts to determine whether future, present, or past focus should be understood as separate, reliable predictors. They also suggested possible links between profiles and skills related to well-being, such as mindfulness.

To the best of our knowledge, there is little research on temporal focus, anxiety/depression, and satisfaction with life in the context of nationality. However, concern for cultural effects has been raised by some (Chishima et al., 2017).

Anxiety and depression

Emerging adulthood is often characterized by excitement, as young adults explore various identities and experiment with careers and relationships. However, this stage is also inherently unstable and a period of heightened risk for mental disorders (LeBlanc et al., 2020). Anxiety disorders are particularly prevalent during emerging adulthood and are associated with difficulty navigating the developmental transitions that occur during this life stage. During emerging adulthood, stress, and anxiety are risk factors for developmental disorders; resulting problems range from substance abuse and mood disorders to symptoms of depression that can lead to suicide attempts and death (Matud, Díaz, Bethencourt, & Ibáñez, 2020)

Satisfaction with life

Diener (1984) defined satisfaction with life as a general measure of subjective well-being. The Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985) is intended to make an overall appraisal of how people feel about their lives (Pavot & Diener, 2008). It has been widely used and has spawned much research. Corrigan et al. (2013) found it to be reliable and valid in a review of 60 studies. Jang et al. (2017) investigated the SWLS for invariance. In their comparison of 26 countries, they found issues with cross-country comparison and therefore recommended invariance testing in any comparative study.

There is evidence that temporal focus, emotional intelligence, and spiritual intelligence predict satisfaction with life and are associated with reduced anxiety and depression. However, less is known about whether these factors might serve as buffers that reduce the deleterious impact of anxiety/depression on satisfaction with life. Zabelina et al. (2022) found some cultural and psychological predictors of temporal focus are specific to countries. Their structural equation models demonstrated that temporal focus was a mediator in the relationship between cultural values and subjective happiness in Ecuador and Russia. They compared emerging adults in two collective cultures. We added to the literature by comparing emerging adults in an individualistic culture (Israel) to those in a collectivist culture (India).

The present study

Building on prior research, we assessed the relationships between temporal focus, anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction among emerging adults, with a particular focus on the moderating role of nationality and gender. Previous studies have shown that future temporal focus is positively correlated with life satisfaction and negatively correlated with anxiety and depression (Kasler et al., 2022). Notably, our own previous research (Walter & Kasler, Routery, 2024b; Walter, Kasler, & Bader, 2024a) revealed complex interactions between these variables, with nationality (India vs. Israel) influencing their strength and direction. In the present research, we used a mediation model where temporal focus (past, present, and future) mediated the relationship between anxiety, depression, and life satisfaction.

Our research questions were the following:

RQ1:

What are the relationships between past, present, and future temporal focus and levels of depression and anxiety among Israelis and Indians?

RQ2:

Are there significant differences between Israelis and Indians in their temporal focus on past, present, and future events?

RQ3:

Are there significant differences between Israelis and Indians in their levels of satisfaction with life?

RQ4:

Does depression and anxiety mediate the relationship between future temporal focus and satisfaction with life among Israelis and Indians?

We formulated three sets of hypotheses. First, for temporal focus and psychological distress, we hypothesized:

H1:

A higher past temporal focus will be associated with increased levels of depression and anxiety among both Israelis and Indians.

H2:

A higher future temporal focus will be associated with increased levels of depression and anxiety among both Israelis and Indians.

H3:

Present temporal focus will be more positively correlated with life satisfaction among Indians than Israelis.

Second, for group differences in temporal focus and life satisfaction, we hypothesized:

H4:

Indians will have a significantly higher focus on the past and future than Israelis.

H5:

Israelis will report significantly higher satisfaction with life than Indians.

Third, for depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction, we hypothesized:

H6:

There will be a negative association between depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction among Indians, but not Israelis.

H7:

Depression and anxiety will mediate the relationship between future temporal focus and satisfaction with life in both cultural contexts.

Method

We employed a quantitative cross-sectional design to explore cultural differences in temporal focus, psychological well-being (depression/anxiety), and life satisfaction among emerging adults in India and Israel. Data were collected using standardized questionnaires: Temporal Focus Scale, Satisfaction with Life Scale, and a combined Depression and Anxiety Scale. These tools were administered to two participant groups, one from Israel and one from India, allowing cross-cultural comparisons.

To test the hypotheses, we conducted statistical analyses: Pearson correlations, one-way MANOVA, and mediation analysis. The study design enabled the identification of both direct relationships between the variables and subtle differences in how temporal focus may influence psychological well-being and life satisfaction in each cultural context.

Sample

The study included two populations: 194 Israeli participants and 179 Indian participants. Among the Israelis, 26 were men and 168 were women, while the Indian group comprised 41 men and 138 women. The age range for the Israeli participants was 18 to 33, with a mean age of 30; the age range for the Indian participants was 18 to 32, with a mean age of 21. In terms of marital status, 111 Israelis were single, 70 were married, 7 were cohabiting, and 2 were widowed. Among the Indian participants, 175 were single, 3 were married, and 1 was divorced.

Subjects were recruited by email requesting their participation in the study. We used Qualtrics to complete the research questionnaires.

Instruments

We used four questionnaires:

A demographic survey collected data on age, gender, ethnic background, and faculty of study.

The Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4; Löwe et al., 2010) is a 4-item measure of depression and anxiety. The questionnaire consists of a 2-item depression scale (PHQ-2) and a 2-item anxiety scale (GAD-2). Items are rated on a 4-point scale from ‘not at all’ to ‘every day’. Example items are: ‘Feeling nervous, anxious, and on edge’; ‘Feeling down, depressed, or hopeless’. Khubchandani et al. (2016) found the internal reliability of PHQ-4 was high (α = 0.81). Reliability in the present study was good (α = .72).

The SWLS (Diener et al., 1985) is a 5-item self-report scale developed to measure satisfaction with life. The SWLS has acceptable reliability (α = 0.82). The item-total correlations for the five SWLS items are 31, .63, .61, .75, and .66, again showing a good level of internal consistency. Reliability in the present study was good (α = .81).

The Temporal Focus Scale (Shipp et al., 2009) is a 12-item scale measuring three areas of temporal focus: past focus (e.g., ‘I think back to my earlier days’), present focus (e.g., ‘I live my life in the present’), and future focus (e.g., ‘I focus on the future’). Items are rated on a 7-point Likert scale from ‘never’ to ‘constantly’. Shipp et al. (2009) reported reliability ranging from 0.74 to 0.89. Reliability in the present study was good (α = .80).

Data analysis

We used SPSS for the quantitative data analysis. We first calculated descriptive statistics to summarize the means and standard deviations of the main variables, including temporal focus (past, present, future), depression and anxiety, and satisfaction with life, for both Israeli and Indian participants.

To examine the relationships between the variables, we computed Pearson correlation coefficients separately for the Israeli and Indian groups. This allowed the identification of significant correlations between temporal focus, depression and anxiety, and life satisfaction within each group.

To test for group differences in temporal focus, satisfaction with life, and levels of depression and anxiety, we conducted a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). This analysis allowed us to compare the means across Israeli and Indian participants while controlling for potential interactions between the variables.

Finally, to explore the mediating role of depression and anxiety in the relationship between future temporal focus and satisfaction with life, we conducted a mediation analysis using the PROCESS macro in SPSS. We tested the significance of the indirect effects using a bootstrapping method with 5,000 resamples to calculate 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

The study’s primary purpose was to determine the differences between Israelis and Indians in temporal focus, anxiety and depression, and satisfaction with life (see Table 1 for questionnaire averages by participant group).

Table 1. Questionnaire averages for temporal focus, anxiety and depression, and satisfaction with life by participant group (standard deviations in parentheses).

VariablesSubscaleIsraelis Indians All
Temporal FocusPast4.29 (1.18)4.94 (1.32)4.60 (1.29)
Present4.89 (1.09)4.89 (1.12)4.89 (1.10)
Future5.00 (1.20)5.32 (1.19)5.15 (1.20)
Total4.73 (0.90)5.05 (0.85)4.88 (.89)
Satisfaction with LifeTotal4.42 (1.02)3.82 (1.22)4.13 (1.16)
Depression and AnxietyDepression2.04 (.82)2.29 (.83)2.16 (.83)
Anxiety2.89 (1.28)2.34 (.93)2.62 (1.16)
Total2.46 (.86)2.31 (.83)2.39 (.85)

Relationships between research variables

To reveal statistically significant correlations between the study variables, we conducted Pearson correlations for Israelis and Indians, separately. As Table 2 shows, in the Israeli sample, past temporal focus was significantly and positively correlated with depression and anxiety (r = .303, p < .001). In other words, individuals who focused more on past events tended to report higher levels of psychological distress. However, past temporal focus did not significantly correlate with life satisfaction (r = -.070), suggesting dwelling on past events did not impact the overall sense of well-being in this sample of Israelis. Interestingly, future temporal focus showed a relatively strong positive correlation with depression and anxiety (r = .309, p < .01), suggesting future-oriented thinking in this sample might be associated with heightened psychological distress. No significant association was found between present focus and depression and anxiety (r = -.014).

Table 2. Correlations between temporal focus, anxiety and depression, and satisfaction with life by participant group.

Variables123 4
Entire Sample
1. Temporal Focus - Past
2. Temporal Focus - Present.178***
3. Temporal Focus - Future.387***.409***
4. Satisfaction with Life-.165**.223***-.015
5. Depression and Anxiety.311***-.049.179**-.150**
Israelis
1. Temporal Focus - Past
2. Temporal Focus - Present.267***
3. Temporal Focus - Future.529***.408***
4. Satisfaction with Life-.070.137.072
5. Depression and Anxiety.303***-.014.309**-.059
Indians
1. Temporal Focus - Past
2. Temporal Focus - Present.104
3. Temporal Focus - Future.212**.418***
4. Satisfaction with Life-.137.315***-.028
5. Depression and Anxiety.390***-.088.061-.295**

* p < .05.

** p < .01.

*** p < .001.

For the Indian participants, past temporal focus was strongly associated with depression and anxiety (r = .390, p < .001). Mirroring the findings for Israelis, Indians focusing on the past experienced greater psychological distress. However, the Indian sample’s present temporal focus showed a much stronger positive correlation with life satisfaction (r = .315, p < .001), suggesting a present-oriented mindset may contribute more significantly to well-being among Indians. Moreover, Indians but not Israelis showed a negative and significant relationship between satisfaction with life and depression and anxiety (r = -.295, p < .001). For this subsample, as life satisfaction increased, levels of depression and anxiety decreased, and vice versa.

Group differences in study variables

To assess the differences between Israeli and Indian participants in temporal focus (past, present, future), satisfaction with life, and levels of depression and anxiety, we conducted a one-way MANOVA (see Table 3). The results revealed significant differences in several variables. Indians (M = 4.94, SD = 1.31) demonstrated a significantly higher temporal focus on the past than Israelis (M = 4.29, SD = 1.18), with F(1, 371) = 24.97, p < .001, and an effect size of η2 = .063, indicating a moderate effect. Similarly, there was a significant difference in temporal focus on the future, where Indians (M = 5.31, SD = 1.19) again scored higher than Israelis (M = 5.00, SD = 1.20), although the effect was smaller (F(1, 371) = 6.41, p < .05, η2 = .017). However, no significant differences were found in temporal focus on the present between the two groups, with Israelis and Indians having identical means (M = 4.89), and F(1, 371) = 0.0, p = .989, suggesting no meaningful variations in their present orientation.

Table 3. Differences by group in dependent variables.

Dependent variableGroupnMSDF η2
Temporal Focus - Past Israelis1944.291.18
Indians1794.941.31F(1,371) = 24.97, p < .001.063
Temporal Focus - Present Israelis1944.891.09
Indians1794.891.12F(1,371) = 0.0, p = .989.000
Temporal Focus - Future Israelis1945.001.20
Indians1795.311.19F(1,371) = 6.41, p < .05.017
Satisfaction with Life Israelis1944.421.02
Indians1793.821.22F(1,371) = 26.72, p < .001.067
Depression and Anxiety Israelis1942.460.86
Indians1792.310.83F(1,371) = 2.99, p = .084.008

Results for satisfaction with life were reversed, with Israelis (M = 4.42, SD = 1.02) reporting significantly higher levels than Indians (M = 3.82, SD = 1.22). This difference was highly significant (F(1, 371) = 26.72, p < .001) and exhibited a moderate effect size (η2 = .067), suggesting the Israelis generally were more satisfied with life than their Indian counterparts.

Finally, there were no significant differences between the two groups in depression and anixety, with Israelis scoring an average of 2.46 (SD = 0.86) and Indians scoring slightly lower at 2.31 (SD = 0.83), but this difference did not reach statistical significance (F(1, 371) = 2.99, p = .084, η2 = .008).

Mediation examination

To clarify whether depression and anxiety mediated the relationship between future temporal focus and satisfaction with life for the entire sample (Israelis and Indians), we used a PROCESS procedure ( Figure 1). We hypothesized (H7) that the higher the future temporal focus, the higher the depression and anxiety, and, consequently, the lower the satisfaction with life. Results showed a direct, positive, and statistically significant relationship between future temporal focus and depression and anxiety, B = 0.125, S.E. = 0.035, CI; 0.055-0.196, and a direct, negative, and statistically significant relationship between depression and anxiety and satisfaction with life, B = -0.208, S.E. = 0.071, CI; -0.348 - -0.067. The direct effect of future temporal focus on satisfaction with life was statistically insignificant, B = 0.011, S.E. = 0.050, CI; -0.086-0.110.

cb704aff-036a-45f2-abba-8cf8531da921_figure1.gif

Figure 1. Relations between future temporal focus and satisfaction with life via depression and anxiety as a mediator.

To test the significance of the indirect effect in the analysis, we employed a bootstrapping technique, utilizing 5,000 resamples, to generate 95% CIs. Indirect effects in which zero is not included in the 95% CI indicate a significant effect at α < .05. Tests of the indirect effect of future temporal focus on satisfaction with life via depression and anxiety were significant, B = -0.026, S.E. = 0.011, CI; -0.051 - -0.005.

Discussion

This study investigated the relationship between temporal focus, anxiety and depression, and life satisfaction among emerging adults in two distinct cultural contexts: Israel and India. The primary aim was to test the influence of temporal focus on psychological distress (anxiety and depression) and overall life satisfaction across these populations.

H1 proposed that a higher past temporal focus would be associated with increased levels of depression and anxiety in both Israelis and Indians. The hypothesis was supported. Specifically, individuals in both populations with a greater emphasis on past events reported significantly higher levels of psychological distress. This aligns with research showing the detrimental impact of an excessive focus on the past, especially when that focus is linked to negative experiences (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2015). An overemphasis on the past, particularly negative past events, may contribute to rumination, a well-documented risk factor for anxiety and depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). Our findings further support the theory that temporal orientation can serve as a critical determinant of mental health outcomes, with imbalanced time perspectives, especially when skewed toward the past, associated with heightened psychological distress (Shipp & Aeon, 2019).

The results are particularly notable in their cross-cultural consistency. Despite the different socio-cultural backgrounds of the Israeli and Indian participants, the positive correlation between past temporal focus and psychological distress was significant in both groups. This suggests the negative psychological consequences of a past-oriented temporal focus may be universal, transcending cultural and contextual differences. Such findings support Zimbardo and Boyd’s (1999) argument that while cultural factors undoubtedly shape individual time perspectives, certain patterns, such as the association between past focus and distress, appear to be consistent across diverse populations. Together the findings underscore the role of temporal focus as a fundamental psychological construct with broad applicability.

McKay et al. (2017) reported similar results in their hierarchical cluster analysis. They found individuals with a predominant focus on the past tended to experience elevated anxiety levels. Their results suggest cognitive and emotional engagement with past events, particularly those that are unresolved or traumatic, may exacerbate stress responses manifesting as anxiety and depressive symptoms. Our findings build on their work and highlight the potential for temporal focus interventions as a strategy to alleviate psychological distress.

The findings did not show a significant relationship between present temporal focus and psychological distress (H2), or between present temporal focus and life satisfaction among Israelis (H3). However, for the Indian participants, we observed a positive correlation between present temporal focus and life satisfaction, suggesting present-oriented thinking may contribute more significantly to well-being in this cultural context. These results echo those reported by Seema and Sircova (2013). In their study, present-focused individuals, particularly those with a hedonistic present orientation, tended to report higher life satisfaction, though this relationship could vary depending on cultural factors.

Interestingly, future temporal focus, while generally associated with goal-oriented behavior and psychological resilience (Shipp & Aeon, 2019), was positively correlated with anxiety and depression in both samples. This somewhat counterintuitive result suggests that while a future focus may be adaptive in some contexts, excessive concern with future outcomes – such as fear of failure or uncertainty – may contribute to psychological distress. This finding aligns with research by Stolarski et al. (2014) demonstrating that an overemphasis on future goals and concerns can lead to increased anxiety and stress. This highlights the complexity of temporal focus as a psychological construct and suggests its impact on mental health may depend on the balance between different temporal orientations.

H4 argued Indians would exhibit a significantly higher focus on both the past and the future than Israelis. H4 was supported. Indian participants demonstrated a stronger focus on both past events and future possibilities, while Israeli participants tended to focus less on these temporal dimensions. These cultural differences can be interpreted in light of research that suggests the time perspective is shaped by socio-cultural factors. In India, with its collectivist orientation, individuals may be more inclined to reflect on their connections with family and tradition, fostering a past-oriented perspective. The importance of cultural continuity and reverence for ancestry may contribute to the greater focus on past events. This aligns with theories suggesting collectivist cultures, like India, encourage individuals to think more about their historical and familial roles, placing emphasis on maintaining social harmony through reflection on the past (Hofstede, 2011; Sircova et al., 2014). Similarly, the stronger future focus observed among Indian participants may reflect long-term planning and anticipation of future outcomes, values that are emphasized in collectivist societies. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory supports this, indicating that societies with a long-term orientation tend to prioritize future planning and perseverance (Hofstede, 2011). In contrast, Israelis, shaped by an individualistic cultural framework, may place less emphasis on past events and more on pragmatic, short-term future goals (Schwartz, 1999), leading to lower levels of both past and future focus.

Previous research supports these speculations. Studies have consistently shown that individuals in collectivist cultures, such as India, are more likely to engage in both past-oriented and future-oriented thinking, as their cultural values promote reflection on historical legacies, as well as concern for future generations (Sircova et al., 2014). In contrast, individuals from more individualistic cultures, like Israel, may prioritize immediate concerns and personal goals over long-term or historical considerations (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).

H5 posited Israelis would report significantly higher life satisfaction than Indians. The hypothesis was confirmed. Despite Indians’ higher focus on the future, their life satisfaction was lower than that of Israelis. This difference may be explained by the interaction between temporal focus and well-being. Previous research suggests an excessive focus on the past, particularly when coupled with negative or regretful thoughts, can detract from present well-being (Shipp & Aeon, 2019). Those who dwell on past events, especially negative experiences, are more likely to report decreased life satisfaction. In the Indian cultural context, whereby the past is culturally significant, this strong past orientation may contribute to lower life satisfaction. In contrast, Israelis, may be more focused on the present, leading to higher reported life satisfaction.

Economic and social conditions could also play a role in shaping the results. Israel, with its relatively high standard of living and access to robust social services, may offer greater opportunities for its citizens to feel satisfied with their lives. Conversely, India faces challenges, such as economic inequality and access to healthcare, and these may negatively impact overall life satisfaction (Helliwell, Layard, Sachs & Neve, 2021). These socioeconomic factors likely contribute to the observed difference in life satisfaction between the two groups. Additionally, research on time perspective and well-being highlights individuals with a balanced time perspective, incorporating positive aspects of the past, present, and future, tend to report higher life satisfaction (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004). While both groups in the present study showed a future focus, the higher life satisfaction observed among Israelis may be partially attributed to a more balanced time perspective, one that does not overemphasize either the past or future, allowing greater present-moment contentment.

H6 posited a negative association between depression anxiety and life satisfaction among Indian participants, but not among Israelis. The hypothesis was supported. Among Indian participants, higher levels of depression and anxiety were associated with lower life satisfaction, reflecting the adverse impact of psychological distress on subjective well-being. In contrast, no significant relationship was found between depression and anxiety and life satisfaction among Israeli participants. The negative association between depression, anxiety, and life satisfaction in the Indian sample is consistent with previous research. Studies have demonstrated that psychological distress, including depression and anxiety, can significantly reduce life satisfaction, particularly in collectivist cultures where social interdependence and harmony are crucial to well-being (Diener et al., 2018; Triandis, 1995). In collectivist societies like India, individuals may experience greater emotional stress when their mental health is compromised, as it may impact their social roles and relationships, exacerbating their psychological distress (Lauber & Rössler, 2007). The absence of a significant association in the Israeli sample could be attributed to cultural differences in the way psychological distress is processed and experienced. In Israel’s more individualistic culture, life satisfaction may be less influenced by social expectations, with a greater focus on personal achievement and resilience (Schwartz et al., 2010).

H7 hypothesized depression and anxiety would mediate the relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction across the entire sample of emerging adults, both Israelis and Indians. The results confirmed this hypothesis. The mediation analysis revealed a higher future temporal focus was directly associated with increased depression and anxiety, which, in turn, negatively influenced life satisfaction. Importantly, the direct effect of future temporal focus on life satisfaction was insignificant, suggesting the relationship between future focus and life satisfaction operates indirectly through psychological distress. This finding highlights the dual nature of future orientation. While future focus is generally linked to goal-setting, resilience, and long-term planning (Shipp & Aeon, 2019), excessive concern about future outcomes can lead to heightened anxiety and stress, thus undermining well-being. The positive association between future temporal focus and depression and anxiety aligns with prior research suggesting that individuals who are overly preoccupied with future uncertainties may experience increased psychological distress (Stolarski et al., 2014). Worrying about potential failures or unmet expectations can create an emotional burden that diminishes life satisfaction.

The mediating role of depression and anxiety underscores the importance of a balanced temporal focus. Zimbardo and Boyd (1999) argued individuals who focus too strongly on the future, particularly when coupled with a lack of present-moment awareness, are at greater risk of experiencing stress and anxiety. This imbalance may hinder their ability to enjoy the present, leading to lower life satisfaction. The indirect effect we found supports this notion, demonstrating psychological distress acts as a mechanism through which future temporal focus affects life satisfaction. The bootstrapping analysis confirmed the significance of this mediation effect, showing the indirect relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction, via depression and anxiety, was robust across the entire sample of emerging adults. This has important implications for interventions aimed at improving well-being, as it suggests that reducing anxiety and depression could mitigate the negative effects of an excessive future focus on life satisfaction. Programs that promote mindfulness, present-centered awareness, or stress-reduction techniques could help individuals maintain a healthier balance between future planning and current well-being (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).

Conclusion

This study provides clear evidence that temporal focus is a key psychological factor influencing mental health and life satisfaction across different cultural contexts. The strong associations between past temporal focus and psychological distress underscore the importance of interventions aimed at helping individuals reframe their relationship with past experiences to mitigate negative mental health outcomes. The mediating role of anxiety and depression in the relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction further suggests that achieving a balance between future orientation and present-focused mindfulness can enhance well-being.

In this study, depression and anxiety were negatively associated with life satisfaction among Indian participants, but not among Israelis. However, across the entire sample of emerging adults, depression and anxiety mediated the relationship between future temporal focus and life satisfaction. These results underscore the complex role of temporal focus in well-being, emphasizing the importance of cultivating balanced time perspectives that reduce psychological distress and promote greater life satisfaction.

The study contributes to the growing literature on time perspective, offering valuable cross-cultural insights into how temporal focus influences mental health and well-being and highlighting the potential for tailored interventions in diverse populations.

Limitations and future directions

This study had several limitations (See Table 4). Cross-cultural comparisons raise concerns about the universality of the concepts investigated and the tools used for data collection. Cultural differences may influence how participants understand and respond to questionnaires, potentially affecting the comparability of results. Moreover, we did not control for socioeconomic status; this could have impacted the outcomes, as socioeconomic disparities may contribute to variations in mental health and life satisfaction between groups.

Table 4. Summary of study limitations.

Limitation categoryDescriptionImplications for future research
Internal Validity Cross-sectional design limits ability to infer causal relationships between variables.Longitudinal or experimental designs could help establish directionality and causation.
Construct Validity Cultural differences may affect interpretation of standardized scales (e.g., life satisfaction, temporal focus).Future studies should conduct measurement invariance testing and consider culturally adapted tools.
Statistical Limitations Gender imbalance and unequal sample sizes may affect statistical power and generalizability.Aim for more balanced and representative samples across demographic groups.
Common Method Bias All data were self-reported, increasing the risk of response biases or shared method variance.Include multi-method or observer-reported data to reduce bias.
External Validity Sample limited to emerging adults from academic settings in India and Israel.Expand sampling to include broader age ranges, socioeconomic backgrounds, and additional countries.

Despite these limitations, the findings yield valuable insights into how cultural contexts shape temporal focus and well-being. Future research should control for socioeconomic factors and explore more nuanced variables, such as cultural attitudes towards time and mental health. Further studies could also investigate the long-term impact of interventions aimed at fostering a balanced time perspective, particularly in collectivist versus individualistic societies. Findings would enhance the validity of cross-cultural studies and offer deeper understanding of the role of temporal focus in mental health across diverse populations.

Declarations

Availability of data and material (data transparency)

Not applicable.

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The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements of India and Israel, and received approval from the India Ethical Board of XIM University, Bhubaneswar, and Tel Hai Academic College ethical board (No 02022023).

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Informed consent for participation in the study was obtained from all participants. The consent was provided in written form.

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The authors have no conflicts of interest to report. The authors confirm that the research presented in this article met the ethical guidelines, including adherence to the legal requirements of India and Israel, and received approval from the India Ethical Board of XIM University, Bhubaneswar, and from Tel Hai Academic College ethical board (No 02022023).

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Walter O, Hazan-Liran B, jha N and Kasler J. Temporal Focus, Depression, and Life Satisfaction: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Israelis and Indians [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2025, 14:861 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.166825.1)
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Key to Reviewer Statuses VIEW
ApprovedThe paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested
Approved with reservations A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit.
Not approvedFundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions

Comments on this article Comments (0)

Version 1
VERSION 1 PUBLISHED 02 Sep 2025
Comment
Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:
Approved - the paper is scientifically sound in its current form and only minor, if any, improvements are suggested
Approved with reservations - A number of small changes, sometimes more significant revisions are required to address specific details and improve the papers academic merit.
Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions
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