Keywords
Dissociation, Anomalous information reception
Dissociation, Anomalous information reception
This current version addresses the comments of reviewer three. It removes the term anomalous information reception and replaces it with the more specific term of mediumship. It also highlights that the DES-T is just one way to evaluate dissociative symptoms and that "contact with the dead" is not necessarily indicative of pathology.
See the authors' detailed response to the review by Etzel Cardeña
Dissociation is conceptualized as the disruption of usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, identity or perception of the environment1. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is defined as a personality disorder, when two or more distinct identities or personalities are present, each with its own pattern of perceiving, relating to or thinking about the environment and self. The core clinical symptoms of DID include amnesia, depersonalization, derealization, identity confusion and identity alteration. Dissociative states are prevalent in other psychiatric disorders, such as PTSD2, and are more prevalent in younger nonclinical populations3. Dissociative states exist on a continuum4–6, from nonpathological expressions, such as highway hypnosis and day-dreaming, to pathological states of derealization (surrealness), and depersonalization (absence of identity)7. Almost half of United States adults have experienced a dissociative episode at some time in their lives8.
A widespread belief possibly related to dissociative symptoms is the idea that it is possible to communicate with deceased individuals; people who report such experiences are called “mediums”9. A survey of 18,607 people in the United States and thirteen European countries found that some 25% reported contact with the dead10. Double-blind experiments indicate that in some cases the information obtained by mediums can be verified as accurate11–14. This suggests that claims of mediumship experiences should not be uniformly dismissed as pathological, however, such claims are commonly regarded as symptoms of DID5,15,16. This is despite a lack of clear evidence that mediums exhibit greater pathological symptoms than the general population17,18. Perhaps this is because on average, mediums do not regard dissociative symptoms as distressful. Indeed, the most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th edition) clarifies that pathological DID is defined when “the person must be distressed by the disorder or have trouble functioning in one or more major life areas because of the disorder,” and that “the disturbance is not part of normal cultural or religious practices”1.
In an effort to further our understanding of the relationship between self-report dissociative symptoms and claims of mediumship, we analyzed data from a large convenience sample. We hypothesized that the prevalence of dissociative symptoms in people who claim mediumship abilities would be the same as those who do not maintain such claims.
This study includes secondary analyses of a specific subset of data on mediumship experiences and dissociative symptoms collected for a different research study approved by the Institute of Noetic Sciences (IONS) Institutional Review Board (approval number, wahh_2016_01). A survey was administered through SurveyMonkey.com with HIPAA compliant methods. Participants were recruited through the IONS Facebook page, IONS mailing lists, and the IONS community networks.
The survey for the parent study from which the data for this study was extracted (Supplementary File 1) began with the study’s purpose and informed consent details. Date and country of birth, race, education, and childhood and current spiritual/religious affiliation were collected. Gender was collected on a subsample of participants. Participants indicated if they had mediumship experiences, defined as the “ability to mediate communication between spirits of the dead and the living or the empathic ability to feel the presence and energies of spirits.” They also indicated age of onset (if applicable), and family history of similar experiences.
Participants then completed the Dissociation Experiences Scale Taxon (DES-T)3 that can be used to distinguish pathological from non-pathological dissociation with a threshold score of 30 with an 87% positive predictive value (Cronbach Alpha of 0.75, on a scale of 0–100)19,20. The DES-T is just one of many dissociative symptom instruments and was chosen for this study because of its brevity and common use. Respondents selected a percent frequency for eight dissociative symptoms. The DES-T results in two variables: the mean of the eight items; and a binary variable based on the pathology threshold3.
Categorical variable percentages were calculated and examined qualitatively. Means, standard deviations and ranges of continuous variables were calculated. Covariates included gender, age, race, education, income, childhood spirituality and current spirituality, family history, and age of the claimed ability onset. Missing values were randomly distributed except for gender. T-test and chi-square tests evaluated differences between variables. Linear and logistic regressions examined the relationship between dissociative symptoms scores and mediumship experience status. A Bonferroni multiple comparison correction was applied to the α significance value, designating 0.003 as the cutoff for a significant result (α = 0.05 divided by 19 items, including seven demographic items, eight DES-T items, DES-T total, DES-T cut-off, linear and logistic regression. Statistics were performed using Stata 12.0 (StataCorp LLC, College Station, Texas).
In total, 3984 participants took the survey from May 4, 2016 to June 7, 2017. Participants were not required to complete all fields and thus only data from 3023 participants who answered the mediumship question (question 49 of the survey) and completed the DES-T (question 75) were included. Most participants were from the United States (62.6%), followed by the United Kingdom (7.7%) and Canada (6.3%); the remaining participants represented thirteen other countries. Participants were mostly middle aged (51 years ± 16; range 17-96), female (70%), Caucasian (85%), college educated (88%), had an annual income over $50,000 (55%), were raised Christian (71%), and now affiliated as Spiritual but not Religious (60%; Table 1). Current spiritual/religious affiliation was different by mediumship status.
Mean ± standard deviation; t, Student’s two-sample t-test statistic; X2, chi-square statistic; p, probability.
Mediumship experiences were endorsed by 42% of participants, with their first experience starting in childhood (81%), and 53% having family members with similar experiences. The grand mean DES-T score was 14.4 ± 17.3 (range 0–100) across all participants and was significantly higher for mediumship claimants (18.2 ± 19.3) than for non-claimants (11.8 ± 15.2; t = -10.3, p<0.0005; Table 2). A linear regression model for the DES-T total score and mediumship responses, including all covariates, found race and education to be significant predictors (F (3, 2947) = 73.2, p<0.0005). Some 11% of mediumship non-claimants and 22% of mediumship claimants had scores greater than 30 (X2 = 63.0, p<0.0005). A logistic regression based on this threshold showed a significant difference in mediumship responses with education (> college) and income (>$50,000) to be significant covariates (LR X2 = 99.12, p< 0.0005).
Data are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. DES-T, Dissociation Experiences Scale Taxon; t - Student’s two-sample t-test statistic; p, probability.
In total, 42% of participants endorsed mediumship experiences. Given that the population surveyed was comprised mostly of individuals interested in mediumship-type experiences, this high percentage is not surprising. The prevalence of similar “contact with the dead” reports in other surveys ranges from 10%21, 25–30%10, 29%22, and up to the same figure found in the present survey, 42%23. The overall mean dissociation experience score for mediumship claimants was substantially below the DES-T clinical cutoff for pathological dissociation, but it was significantly higher than for non-claimants3,24.
The threshold for determination of pathological dissociation continues to be debated, and the present findings may be idiosyncratic with respect to use of the DES-T scale3,24,25. In addition, the experience of communicating with the dead may also be considered a symptom of a high degree of schizotypy, not just dissociation26. We also note that the grand mean DES-T score in our sample was higher than that observed in the general population19. This again likely reflects the convenience sampling of IONS members, which reduces the generalizability of our findings. Future studies comparing those who claim versus do not claim mediumship experiences may benefit from use of more comprehensive measures of dissociative symptoms. In addition, specifically asking questions about functional impairment would help discern between pathological and nonpathological aspects of purported mediumship experiences.
Dataset 1: Dissociation symptoms for those with and without self-report anomalous information reception. DT# are the Dissociation Experience Scale Taxon items. doi, 10.5256/f1000research.12019.d17135226
This work was supported by FUNDAÇÃO BIAL (grant number No. 257/14).
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
The authors would like to thank Amira Sagher, Leena Michel and the Institute of Noetic Sciences.
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Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Yes
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Yes
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Partly
References
1. Watson D: Dissociations of the night: individual differences in sleep-related experiences and their relation to dissociation and schizotypy.J Abnorm Psychol. 2001; 110 (4): 526-35 PubMed AbstractCompeting Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
Yes
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Partly
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
I cannot comment. A qualified statistician is required.
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
Yes
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Dissociative disorders, psychological trauma
Is the work clearly and accurately presented and does it cite the current literature?
No
Is the study design appropriate and is the work technically sound?
Partly
Are sufficient details of methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
No
If applicable, is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
No
Are all the source data underlying the results available to ensure full reproducibility?
Yes
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results?
No
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:
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Version 3 (revision) 04 Jan 18 |
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Version 2 (revision) 23 Oct 17 |
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Version 1 10 Aug 17 |
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