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Research Article
Revised

Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study

[version 2; peer review: 4 approved]
PUBLISHED 23 Apr 2024
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This article is included in the Plant Science gateway.

Abstract

Introduction

Understanding the use of medicinal plants as herbal medicines is considered essential for the survival and continuity of humanity. Since ancient times, the origin and development of natural and traditional medicine have been intrinsically linked to humanity struggle for survival. Nowadays, ethnobotanical studies are employed as a tool for the preservation and conservation not only of taxonomic biodiversity but also of cultural biodiversity.

Methodology

A descriptive research with a quantitative, non-experimental cross-sectional design was carried out. The study was conducted in six Quechua-speaking communities in the district of Incahuasi (3,000 meters above sea level), selected for convenience considering factors such as altitude, accessibility, and proximity to the city. A questionnaire was administered to 32 residents from the communities, who shared their knowledge about medicinal plants, providing relevant information about them. The gender of the participants was considered because men and women use traditional medicine and the knowledge of them is transmitted from parents to children.

Results

During the study, a total of 46 medicinal species were recorded, belonging to 42 genera and 22 botanical families. The most representative medicinal families used by the informants of the communities were Asteraceae (30.4%) and Lamiaceae (15.2%). It is also worth mentioning the genera Salvia and Baccharis, with three and two species respectively, which are commonly used to treat various ailments and diseases.

Conclusions

Ethnobotanical information was collected on the medicinal plants used by the community members of the selected communities in Incahuasi, and the corresponding data were recorded. A total of 46 plants were collected, with the majority belonging to the Asteraceae and Lamiaceae families.

Keywords

Traditional medicine, ethnobotany, systematic botany, medicinal plants

Revised Amendments from Version 1

The present version of the article included the comments made by the reviewers, which included minimal but important details to improve the quality of the article. We initiated the requested changes in writing the types, orders, and families of the plants in normal font and not in italics; in addition, we corrected some of the figures in numbers to letters following the recommendation made by one of the reviewers; we also corrected the references, adapting them to the Vancouver style. 
On the other hand, the name of the herbarium where the collected plants were identified, systematized, and classified was added.

See the authors' detailed response to the review by César Grandez Ríos
See the authors' detailed response to the review by Adriana Beatriz Sánchez-Urdaneta
See the authors' detailed response to the review by José Mostacero León
See the authors' detailed response to the review by José Yovera Saldarriaga

Introduction

The knowledge of using medicinal plants as herbal remedies is considered an important factor for the survival and continuity of the human population, especially in the case of populations that, for various reasons,1 find it difficult to access official healthcare services and therefore rely on medicinal plants.2

Since the appearance of human beings on Earth, all cultures existing in a specific space-time dimension have always met their needs, such as food, healing common ailments in each place, clothing, food processing, shelter, among others. As a result, cultural evolution, and the evolution of knowledge about the natural environment have progressed hand in hand.3

From an anthropological perspective, human life is intimately related to plant biodiversity and depends on it in various ways in which they are used, which is determined by cultural evolution in general. Therefore, regarding medicinal plants, the diversity in their utility and multiple applications can be studied transculturally, inferring changes in their use over time.4

The origin of natural and traditional medicine is closely linked to that of humanity and mankind's struggle for survival. Traditional medicine, also known as unconventional medicine or complementary medicine, is a central component in healthcare systems worldwide.5 The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as the sum of skills, knowledge, and practices used to maintain health, diagnose, prevent, improve, and treat physical and mental illnesses, based on beliefs, theories, and experiences specific to different cultures.6

Over 80,000 out of the 250,000 species of flowering plants are used by human civilizations for medicinal purposes.7 The use of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which dates back 3,000 years, has become popular worldwide, especially in China. However, Traditional Japanese Medicine, with a history of 1,500 years and including Kampo-yaku (herbal medicine), has also been incorporated. Nearly 148 different Kampo formulations can be prescribed within the Japanese national health insurance system.8

Ethnobotany is a discipline that studies the interaction between humans and their plant environment, taking into account three dimensions: (1) cultural perception and taxonomy, (2) the biological and cultural dimension of plant use and management, and (3) cultural foundations and conservation of natural resources.9 Ethnobotanical studies are used as a tool for conservation, not only of biological diversity but also of cultural heritage.10 The ethnobotanical approach is one of the most specific and successful methods as it provides important clues for the discovery of new drugs or information about the pharmacological effects and biological impact of plants. This knowledge is rooted in accumulated practical knowledge and experiences over time by many ancient civilizations.11,12

In general, ethnobotanical studies are one of the main steps in the identification and development of drugs from medicinal plants.13

A clear example in the field of the influence of ethnobotany and the study of the medicinal properties of plants is the cure for malaria through the use of artemisinin, an active ingredient extracted from a Chinese plant called Artemisia annua, known as “qinghao” and “sweet wormwood”. This discovery earned Youyou Tu from the Republic of China the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2015.14,15

Various ethnobotanical studies have been conducted in the Amazon, where a diverse range of ethnic and cultural groups of indigenous and non-indigenous peoples depend on natural resources for their subsistence. One of these studies established an inventory with the objective of assessing the ethnobotanical knowledge of the inhabitants of three communities residing in the Marajó-Pará Coastal Island Marine Extractive Reserve, located at the mouth of the Amazon. The study was carried out using semi-structured interviews and participatory observation methods. Additionally, a non-probabilistic sampling through rational selection was employed. The study utilized indices such as total species diversity (SDtot) and informant diversity (IDs), consensus of use value (UDs), and use diversity value (UDs). The results allowed for the identification of a list of 215 ethnobotanical species, with 79 species being cited by the interviewed inhabitants of the three communities. The most frequently cited category was medicinal plants.16

Another research, conducted in five Shuar communities residing in the province of Zamora Chinchipe, in the Amazon region of Ecuador, collected information on the use of medicinal plants from 60 inhabitants over the age of 18 years. This study allowed for the determination of the significant use level (NUS), the use value index (IVU), and the ethnomedicinal knowledge index (ICE). The ICE revealed that it is concentrated among housewives, farmers, shamans or healers, and elderly individuals. The same study documented 69 species from 34 botanical families with medicinal uses.17

In the Peruvian Amazon, an ethnomedicinal inventory was also conducted, analyzing its importance in four communities located on the outskirts of the San Antonio Private Conservation Area, in the province of Chachapoyas, Amazonas region. In the same study, the most frequently cited medical disorders among the residents (FCI), the most important medicinal plants in terms of relative importance (IR), and the level of cultural knowledge in each studied community (H index) were determined. A total of 124 medicinal species belonging to 104 genera and 47 taxonomic families were listed, with Lamiaceae and Asteraceae being the most representative families.18

A systematic review of various ethnographic studies was carried out in Mexico, focusing only on species from the Verbenaceae family that were used as herbal resources. A total of 41 taxa corresponding to 12 genera and 37 species were recognized, with Lantana camara, Verbena carolina, Phyla scaberrima, and Lippia graveolens being the most cited ones. Furthermore, 92% of the species were used to treat digestive system disorders.19

Another article highlights a systematic review on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of Senecio tephrosioides Turz, a plant from the Asteraceae family, which is a traditional medicinal plant used in ancient medicine systems in Peru and holds significant ethnopharmacological value. The plant contains various active compounds, such as terpenes (1-isopropyl-4-methyl bicyclo[3.1.0] hexane and terpinene), phenolic compounds (5,7-dihydroxy-4',6',8-trimethoxyflavanonone; 3',5-dihydroxy-4-methoxy-7-O-rhannoglucoside), flavonoids (quercetin-3-rutinoside), pyrrolizidine alkaloids (neoplatifiline, senecionine, seneciphylline, seneciphylline N-oxide, and senkirkine), and lactones (sylflavanonone and 5,4-dihydroxychalcone).20

This research will be of great interest for further exploration of the beneficial effects of medicinal plants, and their inventory would help establish common characteristics among different cultures related to their use in treating diseases. Additionally, it is observed that if a plant species is common in a specific geographic area, its use is often specific to a particular community, symbolizing valuable knowledge that is being sought to protect and preserve. Such preliminary investigations, from a public health perspective, emphasize the relevance of traditional medicine, which should be understood as a community that formulates, interprets, participates, and addresses the health problems of its community. Moreover, it aims to contribute to a therapeutic option of natural origin based on traditional knowledge.

The objectives of this study are to document the ethnobotanical data of medicinal plants in Incahuasi and to understand the native medicinal flora present in the area.

Methods

The study was conducted in the Peruvian district of Incahuasi, a Quechua word (Inkahuasi) meaning “house of the Inca,” named after an ancient indigenous city located at an altitude of 3,100 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.). It is one of the six districts of the Ferreñafe province, located in the Lambayeque region, Peru. Incahuasi is situated in the high Andean zone and consists of 127 populated centers (cps), ranging in elevation from 203 to 3,447 m.a.s.l. The study focused on Quechua-speaking inhabitants who are users of traditional medicine, consumers, and herbalists from various populated centers in the district of Incahuasi. The cps were selected for convenience, taking into account factors such as altitude, accessibility, and proximity to the city.

The gender of the participants was considered, because men and women use traditional medicine and the knowledge of them is transmitted from parents to children. The selected cps were: Incahuasi, Sinchihual, Huasicaj, Tungula, Uyurpampa, and Huar-huar. All the collected plants originated from the Jalca (3,200 m.a.s.l.), were taxonomically identified. They were then organized systematically based on their medicinal use. They were then systematically organized according to their medicinal use, identified, and taxonomically systematized in the PRG Herbarium, Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Lambayeque, Peru.

Population and study sample

The study population consisted of informants from six populated centers in the district of Incahuasi, with an approximate total population of 3,200 residents. To determine the sample, 32 participants were selected, including 28 users of traditional medicine and four herbal healers, one of whom was a midwife.

A non-probability convenience sampling method was used to select the participants.

Data collection

For data collection, the following activities were carried out: 1) Data collection began in January 2022 and concluded in December 2022, taking advantage of favorable weather conditions with lower precipitation. For the initial outing, a truck was hired to transport the project staff. This truck was used to survey the populated centers and conduct a pilot survey with some residents. 2) Transportation from the city of Chiclayo to Incahuasi (operations center) and vice versa was done using public transportation, with an approximate duration of 8 hours. Data collection and identification of medicinal plants were scheduled every 15 days, from Friday to Sunday. 3) The project leader, one of the co-authors, a botanist hired for on-site plant identification and systematization, and a Quechua-speaking translator were present on all outings. 4) The researchers traveled on foot to the selected populated centers to administer questionnaires to residents who met the inclusion criteria. They also visited healers and midwives living in rural areas. 5) When necessary, a Quechua-speaking translator was available to ask questions and translate the responses. A recorder was used as an additional tool for data collection, and the answers were recorded on the questionnaires. 6) The identification of medicinal plants was conducted on-site in the Jalca, located at an altitude of 3,200 meters above sea level, by the botanist who took photographs of the plants for taxonomy purposes (https://zenodo.org/record/8231817). This process took place over the course of a year, considering the plants development and flowering stages. Finally, they were systematically organized based on their medicinal use. 7) It is important to mention that data collection was delayed during periods of high precipitation. While it was possible to reach the city, traveling to the populated centers during those times was not possible. The corresponding permits for the identification of the medicinal plants were processed through the competent Peruvian agency “Servicio Nacional Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre” (SERFOR).

After conducting the interviews, the data was transcribed using Microsoft Excel 2019 software. This allowed for the recording of responses provided by each participant in the study, with each record identified by a code to ensure the anonymity of each response. Additionally, the collection of medicinal plants included recording their order, family, species, and common name. The collected data was used to generate frequency tables and summary tables. To ensure data integrity, validation functions in Excel were employed to verify that all data accurately corresponded to each of the previously recorded medicinal plant names. After conducting the interviews, the data was transcribed using Microsoft Excel 2019 software. This allowed for the recording of responses provided by each participant in the study, with each record identified by a code to ensure the anonymity of each response. Additionally, the collection of medicinal plants included recording their order, family, species, and common name. The collected data was used to generate frequency tables and summary tables. To ensure data integrity, validation functions were employed in Excel to verify that all data precisely corresponded to each of the previously recorded medicinal plant names.

A questionnaire used was validated in a study carried out in 2016 by Gallegos et al.21 called “Design and validation of the U-PlanMed questionnaire to identify the use of medicinal plants in Babahoyo, Ecuador” (https://zenodo.org/record/8231817). The questionnaire was built with 6 domains, expressed in questions closed and multiple choice that were directed to identify the plants and parts used, therapeutic applications, purpose, forms of preparation, routes of administration, doses and duration of treatment. Cronbach's α values and even-odd reliability coefficient of the measuring instrument on the use of medicinal plants in rural communities was 0.82.

The questionnaire45 consisted of three items related to sociodemographic aspects and 16 items on the use of medicinal plants, the parts of the plant, its preparation, the diseases that are treated with them, the doses, the form of administration and the duration of treatment.

Data analysis

To obtain the results, the statistical software SPSS v. 27 and Excel 2019 were used to analyze the data. Simple frequency tables and bivariate tables were generated as tools for analysis.

Selection criteria

Inclusion criteria

  • Residents of both genders

  • Quechua-speaking residents

  • Residents older than 20 years

  • Residents users of traditional medicine

Exclusion criteria

  • Foreign residents settled in Incahuasi

  • Users of conventional medicine

Ethical considerations

The research complies with the ethical principles established in the Declaration of Helsinki, where autonomy and informed consent are fundamental elements of the scientific process. All research participants were informed in advance of the purpose of the study and freely agreed to participate by signing an informed consent letter that established the limits of their participation. The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Filial Norte, Chiclayo - Peru, through letter No. 139-2021 - CIEI-FMH-USMP, dated February 22, 2021.

Results

Table 1 presents the classification of sociodemographic variables. It can be observed that the majority of the interviewed individuals are residents of the populated center of Incahuasi. Regarding the gender of the surveyed residents, there is no significant difference between both genders. Lastly, the age group with the highest frequency is the 50-59 age group, representing approximately 47% of the surveyed population.

Table 1. Sociodemographic factors, population centers, and frequency of interviewees.

SociodemographicCategorynhi%
Population centersCallima26.3%
Incahuasi2268.8%
Laquipampa26.3%
Sinchiwal26.3%
Tungula26.3%
Wasikaq26.3%
GenderFemale1546.9%
Male1753.1%
Age range20-29 years old13.1%
30-39 years old412.5%
40-49 years old515.6%
50-59 years old1546.9%
> 60 years old721.9%
Total32100.0%

Table 2 displays the taxonomic classification of the identified medicinal plants, organized by class, order, family, species, and common name. A total of 46 species of medicinal plants were collected, belonging to 42 genera and 22 botanical families. The most representative botanical families, with a high percentage of species, were Asteraceae (30.4%) and Lamiaceae (15.2%). The genera Salvia (3 species) and Baccharis (2 species) also stand out.

Table 2. Taxonomic botany of medicinal plants used in the district of Incahuasi.

Type of plantOrderFamilySpeciesCommon Name
MagnoliopsidaLamialesLamiaceaeSalvia revoluta Ruiz & Pav.“Cutiquero"
S. oppositiflora Ruiz & Pav.“Chochogón”
S. ochrantha Epling“Jarua chochogón”
Minthostachys tomentosa (Benth.) Epling.“Chamagasa”, “Chancua”
Mellisa officinalis L.“Toronjil”
M. mollis (Benth) Grieseb“Muña”
Clinopodium taxifolium (Kunth) Govaerts“Romero de campo”
VerbenaceaeDuranta sp.“Garbanso”
Verbena sp“Verbena”
PlantaginaceaePlantago major L.“Llandén”
DipsacalesViburnaceaeSambucus peruviana Kunth.“Sauco”, “Sabuco”
MyricalesMyricaceaeMorella pubescens (Humb. et Bonpl. ex Willd.) Wilbur“Chicher", "Chichero”
BrassicalesBrassicaceaeNasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton.“Vertius”
Matthiola incana (L.) R.Br.“Alhelí”
Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J.Koch“Rabana”
RosalesUrticaceaeUrtica urens L.“Changa”
RosaceaeMargyricarpus pínnatus (Lam.) Kuntze“Perlilla”
AsteralesAsteraceaeSmallanthus microcephalus (Hieron) H.Rob.“Shita”
Ambrosia arborescens Mill.“Marco”
Paranephelius ovatus Wedd.“Pacha rosa”
Achyrocline alata (Kunth) DC.“Hashanco hishpincu”
Cichorium intybus L.“Achicoria”
Baccharis tricuneata (L.f.) Pers.“Pichana”
Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.“Chilca”
Cronquistianthus lavandulifolius (DC.) R. M. King & H. Rob.“Curbush” “Corbos”
Tagetes filifolia Lag.“Anís de monte”
Matricaria recutita L.“Manzanilla”
Jungia paniculata (DC.) A.Gray“Matico”
Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze“Canchalagua”
Hypochaeris sp.“Diente de león”
Ageratina exsertovenosa (Klatt) R. King. & H. Rob.“Becerro vario”
PiperalesPiperáceaePeperomia inaequalifolia Ruiz & Pav.“Congona de monte”
SolanalesSolanaceaeIochroma grandiflorum Benth.“Cushej” “Lushaj”
Cestrum sp.“Hierba santa”
MyrtalesMyrtaceaeMyrcianthes ferreyrae (McVaugh) McVaugh“Rumelonche” “Blanche” “Lanche”
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.“Eucalipto”
FabialesFabiaceaeOtholobium mexicanum (L.f.) J.W.Grimes“Culén”
FagalesBetulaceaeAlnus acuminata Kunth“Aliso”
MalphigialesHypericaceaeHypericum silenoides Juss.“Canchilagua”
EricalesEricaceaePernettya prostrata (Cav.) DC.“Mullaca”
ScrophularialesScrophulariaceaeAlonsoa sp.“Mormor”
GeranialesGeraniaceaeGeranium sp“Asolanjea”
LiliopsidaCyperaceaeEleocharis sp.“Chompe ojsha”
PolygonalesPolygonaceaeMuehlenbeckia tamnifolia (Kunth) Meisn.“Chumbiaura”
EquisetopsidaEquisetalesEquisetaceaeEquisetum bogotense Kunth.“Culicaballo”, “Cola de caballo”
PolypodiopsidaPolypodialesPolypodiaceaeAdianthum sp.“Culantrillo”

Table 3 presents a list of medicinal plants and their traditional uses, including the plant part used and the method of preparation. It can be observed that some plants, such as “Cutiquero,” are used to treat up to 11 different types of diseases or symptoms. Furthermore, from the data, it can be inferred that leaves are the most commonly used plant part by the residents, followed by stems, flowers, and roots, in that order. The most common method of preparation is infusion, followed by decoction, ointment, extract, and cooking. Regarding the combination of plants to treat specific illnesses, “asolanjea,” “perlilla,” and “chompe ojsha” are used for the treatment of muscle strains and injuries.

Table 3. Traditional medicinal use, part of the plant and form of preparation of the plants collected in Incahuasi.

Used plantTraditional medical usePlant part usedPresentation form
AchicoriaBronchitisLeaves and rootDecoction
Infusion
AlhelíBronchitisFlowersDecoction
AlisoFluLeaves, root, and flowersInfusion
Anís de monteColicLeavesDecoction
AsolanjeaAccompanied by Perlilla and Chompe Ojsha, drunk to treat muscular strain or internal disorder due to a hit.Whole plantInfusion
Becerro varioInfection of any kindLeavesDecoction
Blanche (lanche)ColdLeavesOintment
CanchalaguaHeartLeavesDecoction
CanchilaguaInfectionLeavesInfusion
Chamagasa (chancua)Stomach ache, gasLeaves and stemInfusion
ChicherInfection of any kindLeavesDecoction
FluLeaves and flowersInfusion
StomachLeavesDecoction
Stomach acheLeaves and flowersInfusion
ChilcaFluLeavesDecoction
ChochogónStomach acheLeaves and stemDecoction
Expulsion of the placenta and stopping bleeding
Altitude sickness, bad wind
Leaves and stem
Leaves
Decoction
Infusion
Chompe ojshaAccompanied by Perlilla and Asolanjea, drunk to treat muscular strain or internal disorder due to a hit.Whole plantInfusion
ChumbiauraBronchitisLeavesExtract
Cola de caballoInflammationLeavesInfusion
ColandrelloFor menstrual cramps in combination with oregano, every night, until the pain is goneWhole plantInfusion
Congona de monteBronchitisLeavesOintment
CongonitaFor nerves (Infusion)Stem and leavesInfusion
CorbosInfection of any kindStem and leavesDecoction
CulénStomach acheLeavesCooking
ColdLeavesDecoction
FluLeavesInfusion
Culi caballoInflammationLeavesInfusion
Curbush (corbos)Colic (Chucaque)Leaves, root and flowersInfusion
Stomach acheLeavesDecoction
Cushej (Luchaj)Stomach acheLeaves and flowersDecoction
CutiqueroAir, FluLeavesInfusion
DiarrheaStem and leavesDecoction
HeadacheStem and leavesDecoction
Stomach acheLeavesInfusion
Stomach acheStem and leavesInfusion
Knee painLeavesInfusion and Ointment
HemorrhageStem and leavesInfusion
Bad airStem and leavesExtract
Infusion
FluStem and leavesDecoction
Infusion
Mountain sicknessStem and leavesOintment
Anti-abortionStem and leavesInfusion
Diente de leónInfection of any kindWhole plantDecoction
EucaliptoFluLeavesDecoction
Infusion
Leaves, root and flowersInfusion
GarbanzoStomach acheLeavesInfusion
Hashanko hishpinkuEaracheLeavesExtract
Hierba santaFor Fever (rub and drink)LeavesInfusion
Jarua chochogonExpulsion of the placenta and stop bleedingStem and leavesDecoction
LanchiFlu, throat, “time water”LeavesInfusion
Llanden (Llantén)Urinary infectionLeavesInfusion
Anti-inflammatory, FluLeavesDecoction
LiverLeavesDecoction
Locha (luchaj, loqcha)Stomach acheLeavesInfusion
Bad air or “Mal de aire”LeavesInfusion
Expulsion of the placenta and stop bleedingLeavesDecoction
ManzanillaColicLeaves and flowersInfusion
MarcoChucaqueLeaves, root and flowersInfusion
FluStem and leavesDecoction
MaticoFluLeavesInfusion
Matico de la sierraExpulsion of the placenta and stop bleedingLeavesDecoction
Mor-morStomach acheStem and leavesInfusion
MullacaExpulsion of the placenta and stop bleedingLeavesDecoction
MuñaStomach acheLeavesDecoction
ColicLeavesInfusion
Ointment
FluLeavesExtract
Flu, ColdLeavesInfusion
Leaves, root and flowersInfusion
Muña, chamagasaStomach acheLeavesInfusion
Pacha rosaBronchitisLeaves and flowersInfusion
PerlillaThese 3 herbs are drunk when the person suffers muscle strain or internal disorder due to a hit.Stem and leavesInfusion
PichanaHealing of woundsLeaves, stem and flowersInfusion
FluLeavesDecoction
RabanasFeverLeavesDecoction
RomeroStomach acheLeaves and flowersInfusion
ColdLeaves and flowersInfusion
FluLeaves and flowersDecoction
RumeloncheColdStem and leavesDecoction
SaucoExpulsion of the placenta and stop bleedingLeaves and flowersDecoction
Stomach acheLeaves and flowersDecoction
Fever, ThroatLeaves and flowersDecoction
FluLeaves and flowersDecoction
Leaves and flowersDecoction
ShitaFluLeavesInfusion
VerbenaStomach acheStem and leavesInfusion
VertiusHeadacheLeavesInfusion
Yurajlucha (lushaj)Bad air or “Mal de aire”LeavesInfusion

Table 4 provides a detailed description of diseases and the plants used to treat them. It also gives an overview of the number of plants used to treat a single disease or multiple diseases. For example, 24 plant species are used to treat acute respiratory infections, while 14 species are employed for treating gastroenterocolitis. Overall, the information extracted from the table is valuable for understanding the use of medicinal plants in various treatments.

Table 4. Diseases and medicinal plant used in the treatment.

DiseasesPlant used
Otitis1. Hashanko, hishpinku
Menstrual cramps1. Culantrillo
Generalized infection1. Becerro varia /2. Corbos/Curbush
3. Diente de león /4. Checher/Chicher rojo/Chichero
Acute respiratory infections1. Aliso /2. Marco /3. Chilca /4. Pichana /5. Rabanas /6. Hierba santa /7. Achicoria
8. Romero /9. Eucalipto /10. Luchaj /11. Matico/Matico de la sierra /12. Alelí /13. Muña, Chamagasa, chancua /14. Checher/Chicher rojo/Chichero /15. Chumbiaura /16. Lanchi, Blanche /17. Rumelonche /18. Culén /19. Pacha rosa /20. Congona de monte, Congonita /21. Llanden, Llantén /22. Cutiquero amarillo /23. Sabuco, Cebunka, sauco
24. Shita
Muscle contraction1. Marco /2. Cosbos/Curbush
Localized infections1. Pichana
Myopathies1. Chompe ojsha /2. Asolanjea /3. Perlilla
Urinary infections1. Cola de caballo/Culi caballo
Microbial infections1. Canchilagua
Childbirth1. luchaj /2. Matico/Matico de la sierra /3. Jarva /4. Chochogón /4. Sauco
Gastritis1. Muña, Chamagasa, chancua
Gastroenterocolitis1. Muña, Chamagasa, chancua /2. Chicher /3. Chuchugón, 4. Cutiquero /5. Sauco /6. Anís /7. Verbena /8. Mor – mor /9. Romero /10. Curbush /11. Garbanzo /12. Locha (Luchaj /13. Cushej /14. Manzanilla
Gastroenteritis1. Checher/Chicher rojo/Chichero
2. Culén
Tension headache1. Vertius
2. Cutiquero, Cutiquero amarillo
Nervous disease1. Congona de monte, Congonita
Urinary infection1. Llanden, Llantén
Hepatic inflammation1. Llanden, Llantén
Vertigo1. Chuchugón /2. Cutiquero
Uterine atony1. Cutiquero, Cutiquero amarillo
Coronary disease1. Canchalagua

Table 5 highlights the most commonly treated diseases using medicinal plants, with viral infections being the highest at 25.4%. Additionally, certain symptoms are also addressed, such as stomach pain at 16.6%, placenta expulsion and reduction of bleeding at 5.8%, “mal de aire” (a condition related to cold or sudden temperature changes) at 5.7%, altitude sickness (soroche) at 4.0%, headaches at 2.9%, muscle strains at 2.9%, and inflammation at 2.9%.

Table 5. Frequency and percentage of traditional medicinal use of plants in Incahuasi.

Traditional medicine useFrequencyPercentage
Antiabortion11.0%
Pneumonia65.9%
Chucaque21.9%
Colic21.9%
Heart11.0%
Healing of wounds11.0%
Anti-inflammatory31.8%
Diarrhea21.9%
Headache32.9%
Stomach ache1716.6%
Knee pain11.0%
Gas11.0%
Earache11.0%
Muscle strain or internal disorder due to a hit32.8%
Expulsion of placenta and stopping bleeding65.8%
Fever43.9%
Cold87.8%
Gastritis21.7%
Flu1110.7%
Hemorrhage11.0%
Liver11.0%
Infection of any kind65.9%
Bad air or “Mal de aire”65.7%
Menstrual cramps11.0%
For nerves (infusion)11.0%
Sore throat98.8%
Kidney11.0%
Altitude sickness (“soroche”)23.0%
Total103100.0%

Discussion

The results presented in Table 1, considering sociodemographic factors, indicate that both genders significantly utilize and practice traditional medicine, knowledge that has been passed down from ancestors to their children.22 The vast majority of residents (98%) first consult herbal healers and then seek medical assistance at health centers. Accordingly, highland populated centers embrace traditional medicine, biomedicine, self-treatment, and other options based on their own worldview.23 The study suggests that there is no significant difference between both sexes, and the age range with the highest frequency is between 50 to 59 years, representing approximately 47% of the surveyed population. This finding aligns with the data showing that the ethnomedicinal knowledge is concentrated among elderly individuals, healers, or shamans.24

The results extracted from Table 2 indicate that the most representative families are Asteraceae and Lamiaceae, with the leaf being the most commonly used part (Table 3), which coincides with published works.2527 Asteraceae is the most diverse group of flowering plants on the planet, with records of ethnobotanical uses dating back to ancient times. A study published in 2021 established that Asteraceae species found in Quinua (Ayacucho) and Lircay (Huancavelica) were used for digestive and genitourinary ailments (22.8% and 13.1% respectively).28 80.0% of the Asteraceae collected in the populated centers of Incahuasi are used for the treatment of infections (earache, stomachache, bronchitis, cold). The most representative collected Asteraceae species are: Ambrosia arborescens Mill. “Marco,” and two species from the genus Baccharis: Baccharis tricuneata (L.f.) Pers. (pichana) and Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers.

Ambrosia arborescens Mill. 'Marco' is used in traditional Incahuasi medicine for the treatment of muscular contracture, cold, and chucaque. A phytochemical study identified 113 compounds, including β-acoradiene (15.3%) and chrysanthenone (11.3%), as the main constituents of the essential oil with antioxidant capacity.29 It also exhibits anti-inflammatory activity, with metabolites such as tannins and flavonoids being identified. A systematic review refers to the use of 'Marco' for treating the common cold.30

Baccharis tricuneata (L.f.) Pers. (pichana) and Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. (chilca): both species are used by the interviewees for the treatment of the common cold. However, a study published in 2023 states that both species are indicated as antibacterial and antidiabetic agents.31,32 In general, the genus is used as an anti-inflammatory due to the presence of ethyl acetate and hexane fractions.33

Among the most representative species of the Lamiaceae family, we find Salvia revoluta Ruiz & Pav. “Cutiquero,” which is used by the residents of Incahuasi for the treatment of bad air, influenza, common cold, diarrhea, headache, stomach pain, knee pain, and bleeding during childbirth; and Minthostachys mollis (Benth) Grieseb “muña.” The largest genus within the Lamiaceae family is Salvia, which encompasses 1,010 species, several of which are globally used in traditional medicine for the treatment of conditions such as angiogenesis, viral and bacterial infections, inflammation, and oxidative stress.34

Salvia revoluta Ruiz & Pav. “Cutiquero.” Central and South America host the highest number of Salvia species worldwide, with 510 species.35 A study reveals the antibacterial power of the genus in 11 species in Iran, where the main components detected were β-caryophyllene, 1,8-cineole, and α and β-pinene. The most susceptible organisms were Salmonella typhi and Bacillus subtilis.36

Minthostachys mollis (Benth) Grieseb., known as “muña,” is commonly used in traditional South American medicine.37 In the Incahuasi community, it is used as an infusion to treat various health disorders such as stomach cramps, flu, and colds (Tables 3, 4, 5). Peruvian muña produces compounds of medicinal interest, and one of the most abundant compounds in muña oil is the monoterpene Pulegone. Pulegone possesses anti-inflammatory activity as it inhibits the expression of lipopolysaccharides and regulates inflammation in vitro by modulating the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) isoform and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. It participates in the inhibition of NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa B) and MAPKs (nitrogen-activated protein kinases) signaling pathways, while strengthening the Nrf-2/HO-1 (nuclear factor E2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase 1) pathways. In vivo, it suppresses NLRP3 inflammasome and reduces cytokine production. Additionally, it exhibits psychoactive activity and acts as an analgesic, antibacterial, antifungal, and insecticidal agent.38 Nrf-2 plays a fundamental role in redox homeostasis.39 Moreover, a cytoprotective effect has been demonstrated in gastric lesions induced in rats.40

The majority of medicinal plant species in the Quero district are used for specific traumas, particularly for injuries and wounds.41 In Chachapoyas, Peru, they are used as medical indications for digestive diseases.4144 However, this study shows that there is a higher number of plant species used for acute respiratory diseases and gastroenterocolitis (Tables 4 and 5), which frequently include viral infections and the characteristic symptom of stomach pain. The research findings are consistent with the study conducted by Mostacero et al.45

Conclusion

During the study, ethnobotanical data on medicinal plants used in the selected communities of Incahuasi were recorded. Various aspects were collected, including the common names of the collected plants, their mode of use, the characteristics of the environment where they were found, whether they were used fresh or dried, the parts utilized, the preparation method of home remedies, as well as the form and frequency of administration. Additionally, the transmission of ancestral knowledge related to these medicinal plants was taken into account.

During the study, 46 medicinal plants were collected, with the majority of them belonging to the Asteraceae and Lamiaceae families, which were considered the most representative. Among the plants belonging to the Asteraceae family, Ambrosia arborescens Mill., known as “Marco,” Baccharis tricuneata (L.f.) Pers., called “pichana,” and Baccharis latifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. were found. On the other hand, among the plants belonging to the Lamiaceae family, Salvia revoluta Ruiz & Pav., known as “Cutiquero,” and Minthostachys mollis (Benth) Grieseb., known as “muña,” stood out.

Limitations

The research results were obtained throughout the different seasons of the year. It should be noted that the climate posed a limitation for sample collection during the rainy season, while the altitude and rugged nature of the areas also presented a challenge. It is important to highlight that these results may vary over time and with the inclusion of a greater number of communities in the study. Additionally, since the interviewed population speaks Quechua, the presence of a translator was often required to facilitate communication.

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Morales Ramos JG, León-Figueroa DA, Picón Pérez MS et al. Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study [version 2; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2024, 12:1075 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.138398.2)
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Reviewer Report 07 May 2024
Adriana Beatriz Sánchez-Urdaneta, Universidad Tecnica de Manabi, Portoviejo, Manabí Province, Ecuador 
Approved
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After reviewing the comments made to the manuscript “Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study, it can be seen that the authors accepted the observations made, therefore, as far as I am concerned, I approve of the changes made and ... Continue reading
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Sánchez-Urdaneta AB. Reviewer Report For: Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study [version 2; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2024, 12:1075 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.164103.r268960)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
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Reviewer Report 09 Apr 2024
José Yovera Saldarriaga, Universidad Nacional Santiago Antunez de Mayolo, Huaraz, Ancash, Peru 
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The study highlights the importance of knowing medicinal plants in populations with difficult access to conventional health services. It presents an Anthropological and cultural approach by connecting knowledge of the natural environment with human survival in the relationship between human ... Continue reading
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Yovera Saldarriaga J. Reviewer Report For: Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study [version 2; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2024, 12:1075 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.151588.r203201)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 20 Jun 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    20 Jun 2024
    Author Response
    Thank you for your comment.
    Competing Interests: None
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  • Author Response 20 Jun 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    20 Jun 2024
    Author Response
    Thank you for your comment.
    Competing Interests: None
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Reviewer Report 03 Apr 2024
José Mostacero León, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Trujillo, Peru 
Approved
VIEWS 13
The study highlights the importance of knowing medicinal plants in populations with difficult access to conventional health services. It presents an Anthropological and cultural approach by connecting knowledge of the natural environment with human survival in the relationship between human ... Continue reading
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León JM. Reviewer Report For: Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study [version 2; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2024, 12:1075 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.151588.r224511)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 21 Jun 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    21 Jun 2024
    Author Response
    Thank you for your comment.
    Competing Interests: None
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
  • Author Response 21 Jun 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    21 Jun 2024
    Author Response
    Thank you for your comment.
    Competing Interests: None
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Reviewer Report 18 Mar 2024
César Grandez Ríos, Departamento académico de botánica. Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, National University of the Peruvian Amazon, Iquitos, Loreto, Peru 
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I have reviewed the article proposed by Morales Ramos JG, et al.
I have detailed each section in order for the authors to carefully consider the observations and comments that need to be addressed and resolved. This division will ... Continue reading
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Grandez Ríos C. Reviewer Report For: Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study [version 2; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2024, 12:1075 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.151588.r224508)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 23 Apr 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    23 Apr 2024
    Author Response
    Reviewer 2: César Grandez Ríos
    The reviewer says:  I have reviewed the article proposed by Morales Ramos JG, et al. I have detailed each section in order for the authors ... Continue reading
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
  • Author Response 23 Apr 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    23 Apr 2024
    Author Response
    Reviewer 2: César Grandez Ríos
    The reviewer says:  I have reviewed the article proposed by Morales Ramos JG, et al. I have detailed each section in order for the authors ... Continue reading
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Reviewer Report 10 Jan 2024
Adriana Beatriz Sánchez-Urdaneta, Universidad Tecnica de Manabi, Portoviejo, Manabí Province, Ecuador 
Approved with Reservations
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Based on a detailed reading of the article, here is my analysis:
The article has a logical and coherent structure. The introduction adequately presents the topic and its relevance. The methodology clearly describes the research design, study population, instruments ... Continue reading
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Sánchez-Urdaneta AB. Reviewer Report For: Traditional medicine in Incahuasi: An ethnobotanical study [version 2; peer review: 4 approved]. F1000Research 2024, 12:1075 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.151588.r224505)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 23 Apr 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    23 Apr 2024
    Author Response
    Reviewer 1: Adriana Beatriz Sánchez-Urdaneta
    Thank you very much, dear doctor, for reviewing our article. Your comments and recommendations have been beneficial for improving the quality of the article. The ... Continue reading
COMMENTS ON THIS REPORT
  • Author Response 23 Apr 2024
    Jorge Guillermo Morales Ramos, Facultad de Medicina Humana, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Chiclayo, 14012, Peru
    23 Apr 2024
    Author Response
    Reviewer 1: Adriana Beatriz Sánchez-Urdaneta
    Thank you very much, dear doctor, for reviewing our article. Your comments and recommendations have been beneficial for improving the quality of the article. The ... Continue reading

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Not approved - fundamental flaws in the paper seriously undermine the findings and conclusions
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