National Sentiments and Regional Flavour- A Socio-economic Study of Huvina Hadagali Jasmine

3.1 Methods

The primary aim of this study was to investigate various aspects of jasmine cultivation, focusing on cultivators in the Huvina Hadagali region. The study employed a questionnaire-based approach to gather data from jasmine cultivators, with subsequent analysis utilizing frequency and percentage analysis and two-step cluster analysis using IBM SPSS. A cross-sectional research design was adopted to collect data from jasmine cultivators in the Huvina Hadagali region. This study employed a purposive sampling technique to select participants actively involved in jasmine cultivation in the Huvina Hadagali region. Purposive sampling allows researchers to choose participants who are most relevant to the research objectives, ensuring that the sample closely aligns with the study’s aims (Campbell et al., 2020; Memon et al., 2025). This targeted approach can enhance the rigor and trustworthiness of data and results (Memon et al., 2025). It is also used when the researcher has no access to the population or when the population is indefinite. One advantage of purposive sampling is that it facilitates the establishment of trust and rapport with participants, which is essential for obtaining honest and meaningful data (Uddin & Paul, 2023). The sample size for this study was determined to be 364 jasmine cultivators from Huvina Hadagali. A structured questionnaire was developed to collect data from the participants. The questionnaire consisted of closed-ended questions covering various aspects related to jasmine cultivation, including cultivation practices, challenges faced, yield, market access, and socio-demographic characteristics of the cultivators. A pilot study was conducted before data collection to ensure the relevance and reliability of the research instruments. This pilot study involved a subset of the target population, allowing for the identification of ambiguities, inconsistencies, and potential biases in the questionnaires. Additionally, the questionnaire was validated by experts to establish its content validity. A panel of experts in floriculture was consulted to review the questionnaires. The combined use of a pilot study and expert validation strengthened the instrument’s validity and ensured that it was both comprehensible to respondents and capable of producing meaningful and credible data aligned with the objectives of the study. Reliability and construct validity were omitted as the focus of the study was on exploitative segmentation analysis rather than on a theoretical testing investigation. After collecting the questionnaire responses, the data were subjected to frequency and percentage analyses to examine the distribution of responses across different variables. This analysis provides insights into the prevalence of various practices, challenges, and characteristics among jasmine cultivators in Huvina Hadagali. Additionally, a two-step cluster analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS version 27 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) to identify distinct groups or clusters within the sample population, based on their responses to the questionnaire. In this study, two-step cluster analysis was employed to identify natural groupings within the dataset based on floriculture variables. The cluster selection was guided by a combination of statistical and interpretability criteria. The two-step clustering algorithm utilizes the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) to automatically determine the optimal number of clusters. Clusters were automatically selected using the software. The average silhouette coefficient was used to assess the quality of the cluster selection. A silhouette value close to +1 indicates that the data points are well matched to their own clusters and poorly matched to neighboring clusters. A silhouette measure of ≥0.5 was considered an indicator of good clustering quality. SPSS provides an average silhouette coefficient ranging from -1 to +1. A value closer to +1 indicates well-separated and cohesive clusters. A silhouette value of ≥0.5 was considered acceptable for high-quality clustering. This analytical technique helps to uncover patterns or relationships among the variables and allows for a deeper understanding of the heterogeneity within the population of jasmine cultivators.

4.1 Demographic analysis

Some exciting trends can be seen in the demographic analysis of farmers in Huvina Hadagali. It demonstrates how young and active the farming community is, with a sizable percentage (36.8%) of its members under 30 years old. In addition, among the farming community’s decently educated members, a sizeable percentage (39.6%) had completed higher education beyond the twelfth grade. These insights shed light on the changing dynamics within the Havina Hadagali agricultural community, emphasizing how family structure, age, gender, and education affect group makeup and operations. The increasing number of nuclear families and the three- to five-member majority of agricultural families are signs of the community’s adaptation and resilience.

Table 2 thoroughly examines Huvina Hadagali farmers’ economic conditions, concentrating on their sources of revenue and ways of financing their farming operations. A sizable portion of farmers (52.2%) used the production of jasmine as their primary source of yearly net income per acre, with the majority making between Rs. 10000 and Rs. 15000. Interestingly, most farmers in Havina Hadagali (52.7%) used borrowed and personal funds to finance their agricultural operations. This emphasizes how the farming sector needs to diversify financially to maintain viability.

In addition, this research highlights how essential commission agents make borrowing easier because, for 72.5% of farmers, they are their primary source of funding. By serving as middlemen, these agents can buy jasmine directly from the growers. These economic observations highlight how vital jasmine growth is to farmers’ livelihoods and how important it is to have various funding options made possible by commission agents to maintain agricultural operations in Huvina Hadagali.

Table 3 offers essential insights into Huvina Hadagali’s labor and employment dynamics, particularly about the demand for permanent workers in jasmine cultivation and the sufficiency of labor available. The statistics show that a sizable majority of respondents (52.2%) think there is not enough labor in the current workforce to meet the demands of jasmine production and that labor storage is an issue in this industry.

As confirmed by 75.8% of respondents, there is an evident requirement for permanent labor because jasmine growth is a year-round endeavor. However, only 83% of respondents said they could find the necessary labor, suggesting that there may not be enough workers to meet this demand. Moreover, 84.8% of the respondents indicated that most tasks given to permanent laborers were related to jasmine. This emphasizes the need for labor and specialization to meet the demands of jasmine farming. The data, taken as a whole, emphasize Huvina Hadagali’s difficulties in satisfying the demands of jasmine cultivation due to labor scarcity. This emphasizes the importance of developing practical solutions to deal with these problems and ensuring that workers are prepared to handle the demands of this vital industry.

Table 4 provides a significant understanding of Jasmine’s sales and marketing dynamics in Huvina Hadagali. It clarifies the jasmine flower sales method, commission fees, function of the blower market, and travel time to the market. According to research, a sizable portion of producers—61 percent—choose to sell their jasmine flowers directly to shops via commission agents. This illustrates the standard of a specific distribution route in the neighborhood market. Moreover, 36.3% of growers opt to sell their harvest to wholesalers through commission brokers, suggesting that it is another important sales channel. Significantly, most jasmines grown in Huvina Hadagali are transported over 60 km to the market, emphasizing the value of long-distance networks in helping producers access the market.

In Huvina Hadagali, private ownership makes up most of the market ownership, as indicated by 57.1% of respondents, compared to 41.2% who indicated municipal ownership. Distribution ownership underscores the involvement of various stakeholders in market management and operation. Therefore, the data suggest that producers rely on commission agents for sales transactions, long-distance transportation is crucial for accessing markets, and a diverse range of stakeholders own the flower market in Huvina Hadagali.

Table 5 provides valuable insights into the post-harvest handling process of jasmine growers in Huvina Hadagali. The focus is on value-adding transportation and the associated costs. According to the data, a significant proportion of growers (91.2%) engage in value-addition activities such as garland making to enhance the market value of their jasmine. Interestingly, 7.1% of jasmine production is directed towards accessing untapped markets, where commercial Hadagali Jasmine is readily available. This indicates that growers strategically expand their customer base and maximize their sales opportunities. Regarding transportation, rented taxis were the primary mode of transportation at 44.5%, followed by buses at 24.7%. This reliance on rented vehicles highlights the importance of efficient transportation networks for connecting producers to markets and ensuring the timely delivery of perishable goods.

The data also reveal the costs associated with transportation, with most growers (59.3%) incurring transportation costs ranging from up to Rs. 20 per kg. Table 5 illuminate the efforts made by jasmine producers to raise the value of their crops and increase their market share.

A detailed analysis of the cultivation of jasmine by Huvina Hadagali farmers is presented in Table 6. This study examined farmer experience level, plant life duration, degree of cultivation, and generational engagement in jasmine. According to the data, approximately 85.2% of farmers continue to conduct agriculture and pass it down through family generations. This suggests that the neighborhood has a long-standing agricultural tradition. However, a discernible downturn in jasmine growth indicates a move away from this formerly significant farming practice. Research shows that over half of the farmers still grow jasmine on up to one acre of land, notwithstanding this drop. Some oversee more extensive regions but in smaller amounts. Furthermore, many farmers’ jasmine plants enjoy extended lifespans (49.5%, 16 years). This suggests that the practice is enduring and environmentally friendly. A wide range of skills is shown in the distribution of farmers’ experience levels in jasmine production, with 51.6% having up to ten years of experience. The advancement and continuation of jasmine cultivation techniques is facilitated by a mix of new practitioners and their experiences. In conclusion, this study emphasizes how farmers have a long-standing practice of passing down agricultural knowledge to their offspring, how the jasmine cultivation industry is evolving, and how different levels of experience will shape their future.

4.2 Cluster analysis

Two-step cluster analysis segmented the jasmine cultivators into seven distinct clusters, each demonstrating unique socioeconomic and operational characteristics. These findings have significant implications for tailoring agricultural support, improving market access, and designing inclusive strategies for rural development. The findings of the two-step cluster analysis of 364 individuals from the Vijayanagara district’s Huvina Hadagali are shown in Table 7. The study considered factors including farming practices, irrigated regions, and agricultural equipment to classify Hadagali Jasmine farming according to the yield produced per acre. The results showed seven different clusters with sizes ranging from 11% to 19.2%, each of which represents a different percentage of the sample. Specific input variables defined each cluster, such as irrigated area, agricultural equipment, and farming techniques (Table 10). Remarkably, irrigated area was the most significant variable, occurring in every cluster at 100%.

From Table 8, 19.2% of the total sample, the third cluster is the most significant fraction, followed by the first, fifth, fourth, seventh, and second clusters. It is worth noting that clusters two and six are relatively small and were excluded from further comparative analysis because of their limited representation in the sample (Hennig et al., 2015). Clusters 1 and 3 of the entire group practiced single-crop farming, indicating limited diversification and potential vulnerability to markets or climatic shocks. The distribution of clusters provides valuable insights into the diverse agricultural practices and characteristics observed among jasmine farmers in Huvina Hadagali, offering an understanding of the factors influencing yield outcomes per acre (Table 9).

In the 2-step cluster analysis, Table 7 displays the categorical variable and its corresponding prediction relevance, categorized into seven clusters, each with a unique pattern within the data. Figure 1 shows the quality of the cluster analysis based on three independent variables, indicating a favorable silhouette measure of cohesiveness and separation above the 0.7 threshold for good quality. Furthermore, the silhouette measure of cohesiveness and separation exceeding 0.5 suggests a favorable zone for cluster quality (Cai et al., 2024; Hennig et al., 2015). The analysis revealed considerable differences among the independent factors, including the type of agricultural equipment used, irrigated land, and type of farming accessing individual clusters. However, the respondents in all groups primarily engaged in jasmine cultivation.

Figure 1. Model summary.

Source: Author’s analysis.

Table 1 outlines the order of input variables based on their significance within each cluster. In Figure 3 and Figure 4, Clusters One, Four, and Seven significantly impact irrigated land, whereas Clusters Two, Three, Five, and Six deem the impact of irrigated areas insignificant. Clusters Three and Five were distinguished by their unique cultivation practices, including the use of specific agricultural equipment and the adoption of different farming methods. Conversely, Clusters Two and Six exhibit statistical significance primarily regarding the farming methods employed, with other factors, such as irrigated area and agriculture equipment type, demonstrating less importance.

Figure 2. Predictor importance.

Source: Author’s analysis.

Figure 3. Categorical variables.

Source: Author’s analysis.

Figure 4. Cluster comparison.

Source: Author’s analysis.

Overall, the analysis offers valuable insights into the distinct patterns of jasmine cultivation practices observed across various clusters, highlighting the significance of different input variables in shaping the patterns.

The data table shows the various farming practices and agricultural equipment usage across the clusters. Upon closer examination, it becomes apparent that three clusters engage in mixed cropping, whereas the others primarily practice monoculture farming. The sample includes individuals who practice both mixed and monoculture farming and those who exclusively practice monoculture farming.

Regarding agricultural equipment, clusters two, five, six, and seven predominantly use tractors. Cluster Six stands out for its diverse use of farming equipment. In contrast, clusters one, three, and four are characterised by farmers’ exclusive use of sprayers. Most farmers rely on sprayers for their agricultural activities.

Upon analyzing the clusters of irrigated areas, we discovered distinct patterns among farmers based on the size of their holdings. Farmers in the first cluster generally have between 1.1 and two acres of irrigated land. The second cluster includes those with holdings ranging from less than one acre to 3.1 acres or more, all under irrigation. Cluster three consists of farmers with 3.1 acres or more under irrigation. The fourth cluster comprises farmers in clusters five and six, with irrigated land ranging from 1.1 to 2 acres and 3.1 acres and above. The sixth cluster’s farmers have irrigated land ranging from less than 1 acre to 3.1 acres or more, with most concentrated in the 1.1- to 2-acre range. Finally, the seventh cluster comprised farmers with irrigated land between 2.1 and 3 acres. It is worth noting that most farmers tend to have between 1.1 and 2 acres of irrigated land.

After analyzing the characteristics of the surveyed farmers, we identified several distinct patterns. Cluster one (green) comprises farmers with irrigated land holdings between 1.1 and 2 acres who mainly practice single-crop farming and rely on sprayers for crop management. This cluster has the highest number of farmers in this land size range. Cluster three (Yellow) includes farmers with irrigated land of 3.1 acres or more who prefer a single-crop farming strategy and utilize sprayers as their primary farming equipment. Cluster four (Red) consists of farmers with smaller irrigated land holdings, up to one acre, who adopt a single-crop approach and favor sprayers.

Similar agricultural practices were demonstrated by Clusters Five (Royal Blue) and Seven (Sky Blue), which used only mixed farming and mostly tractors as their primary equipment. Nonetheless, Cluster Seven and Cluster Five have different land holdings: Cluster Seven owns 2.1 to 3 acres of irrigated land, whereas Cluster Five has 1.1 to 2 acres. Overall, it is clear that the clusters that were discovered differ in farming practices and agricultural equipment. Notably, none of the farming practices in these clusters involved mowers or weeders. The variations in land size, crop selection, and equipment preferences among the clusters underscore the heterogeneity of the agricultural community under study. Socioeconomically, they represent resource-constrained smallholders, many of whom own fewer than two acres and rely heavily on borrowed funds. Policy strategies, such as access to low-cost credit via cooperatives or SHGS, subsidized mechanization packages, and value addition, should be prioritized. This cluster reflects a transitional former segment that integrates traditional practices with modern technologies. Strategies to promote agri-entrepreneurship and FPO formation are required. A linkage between farmers and horticulture exports under the national scheme is required. It is also necessary to improve the post-harvest infrastructure and provide cold chain logistics to farmers.

Ethics and consent statement

This research was conducted in strict accordance with existing ethical criteria owing to its involvement in human interactions. It has obtained the necessary ethical clearance (Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) at Kasturba Medical College and Kasturba Hospital, Manipal, Karnataka, India- issued on 14^th December 2021, indicating that “project comes seems to come under pure economic, social and managerial research. If there are no health-related aspects involved, then you may proceed without IEC clearance” from the Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) at Kasturba Medical College and Kasturba Hospital, Manipal, Karnataka, India. In addition, during the implementation of this non-experimental study, the researcher collected written informed consent from all participants, assuring them that their personal information would be handled with the highest level of confidentiality.