Keywords
Leisure-based interventions, schizophrenia, Adults, Recreation, Scoping review
This article is included in the Manipal Academy of Higher Education gateway.
Schizophrenia is a severe mental illness characterized by psychosis, apathy, social withdrawal, and cognitive impairment, which results in impaired functioning in work, school, parenting, self-care, independent living, interpersonal relationships, and leisure time.
A systematic search was conducted using Arksey and O’Malley’s framework with studies published on leisure-based intervention from January 1990 to December 2023.
The review included 11 articles in the study. In total two studies were pilot interventional study, one randomized controlled study, one case-control, one retrospective study, three were cross sectional, one was cross sectional longitudinal study and two were qualitative in nature. Studies used different types of leisure activities like cooking group, discussions, board games, arts and craft, painting, beading, sewing, clay work, paper craft, etc were used as an intervention. Qualitative studies found that individuals with schizophrenia spent less time in social and leisure activities and more time relaxing and doing nothing.
The study highlights the need to conduct further research on leisure-based interventions using various study designs like randomized controlled trials and mixed methods to understand its effectiveness among individuals with schizophrenia.
Leisure-based interventions, schizophrenia, Adults, Recreation, Scoping review
Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by psychosis, apathy, social withdrawal, and cognitive impairment, which results in impaired functioning in work, school, parenting, self-care, independent living, interpersonal relationships, and leisure time (Geller, 1992). Approximately 24 million individuals worldwide, or 1 in 300, are affected by schizophrenia. In adulthood, the corresponding rate is 1 in 222. The most common times for onset are in late teens and the twenties, and in men it happens earlier than in women (World Health Organization, 2022). One of the main mental health disorders contributing to the global disease burden is schizophrenia, that also affects social functioning (World Health Organization, 2012). People with schizophrenia have both internal and environmental obstacles to engaging in leisure activities, such as side effects from medicine, cultural stigma, family dynamics, and cultural norms (Rezaie et al., 2017).
Leisure is defined as a “non-obligatory activity that is Intrinsically motivated and engaged in during discretionary time, that is, time not committed to obligatory occupations such as work, self-care, or sleep” (American Occupational Therapy Association, 2014). Depending on personal perceptions, leisure can be defined as either casual, serious, or project based. It can take many different forms, such as instantaneous, brief, and intrinsically fulfilling activities without the need for special skills (i.e., casual leisure); systematic activities carried out by beginners or hobbyists with skills and expertise that could lead to a career itself; or occasionally short-term tasks completed as part of work obligations (Stebbins, 2008). One aspect of a meaningful life that provides those with mental illness with many benefits is leisure, which includes identity, belonging to themselves, involvement, lowering boredom, and a method of managing their stress (Iwasaki et al., 2014). Engaging in recreational activities might pose challenges as it involves finding, planning, and carrying out suitable and captivating leisure pursuits (Hein et al., 2020). Negative symptoms of psychosis may make it difficult for a person to participate in leisure activities (Giacco et al., 2012).
According to a study on how people with serious mental illnesses, including schizophrenia, use their time, those with the disease only engage in active leisure activities when they were part of a treatment plan (Yanos & Robilotta, 2011), indicating that leisure-focused therapies could be crucial to achieving recovery-focused results (Iwasaki et al., 2014). On this basis, our study aimed to explore the existing literature related to the leisure-based interventions for adults with schizophrenia by identifying the range of study designs.
The framework proposed by scoping reviews by Arksey & O’Malley (2005) was used in the current scoping review.
What are the available studies on leisure-based interventions or programs provided for adults with schizophrenia?
Having specific criteria for searching the relevant articles is a requirement to answer the question framed for any scoping review (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). The databases Scopus, PubMed, and Embase were accessed. The grey literature searches through Google scholar were carried out.
Search keywords
“Schizophrenia” AND “Psychosis” AND “leisure” OR “leisure activity” OR “leisure activities” OR “recreation” OR “activity” OR “activity group” OR “activity groups” OR “creative activity” OR “recreational therapy” OR “leisure-based intervention” AND “Adults” OR “Adult”. The Boolean search strategy was applied to connect using AND, and OR.
The following criteria were decided on for the scoping review by all the reviewers:
Inclusion criteria
• Studies using leisure-based interventions, qualitative studies, single-case studies, cross-sectional and longitudinal studies with or without a comparison control group from January1990 to December 2023 were included.
• Full-text articles in only English language were included.
Exclusion criteria
The search was carried out in the selected databases by two independent reviewers adhering to the established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Following title and abstract screening, the articles included for full-text screening were exported to an Excel sheet for blinding of the selection process. Any disagreement during the selection process was resolved with the help of other reviewers. The included articles were reviewed in full text and data extraction covered the following: title, author(s), year of publication, country, setting, methodology, and results. The extracted data were entered into the Excel sheet, and all the authors reviewed the information. The study details are charted in Table 1(extended data). Three independent authors participated in selecting the studies, and all authors reached a consensus on the studies to be included after discussion. Figure 1 shows the selection of studies in this review.
The study yielded 30,194 articles out of which 20,733 articles were screened for title and abstract screening after duplicate removal. After title and abstract screening, 194 articles were eligible for the full text screening, 183 articles were excluded as they did not meet the inclusion criteria, and finally 11 articles were included in the review. In total two studies were pilot interventional study, one randomized controlled study, one case-control, one retrospective study, three were cross sectional, one was cross sectional longitudinal study and two were qualitative in nature. Out of 11 studies, four were conducted in London, England (Dean et al., 2014; Ngamaba et al., 2021; Shimitras et al., 2003; Cella et al., 2016), two in Philadelphia (Iwasaki et al., 2014; Snethen et al. 2012), two in Australia (Caddy et al., 2011; Hayes & Halford, 1996), one in France (Voruganti et al., 2006), one in Israel (Lipskaya-Velikovsky et al., 2020), and one study in the United States of America (McCormick et al., 2012). In total 993 participants with schizophrenia were studied. All the studies were from high economic countries and participants were recruited from different settings such as hospital inpatients, community, outpatients, and day care centres.
Two pilot interventional studies used recreational activities, cooking group as part of the intervention and duration lasted for average of one hour (Lipskaya-Velikovsky et al., 2020; Snethen et al. 2012). A Randomized control design study used activity group which included activities like discussions, board games and visits to places of interest (Dean et al., 2014), a case control study used camping, kayaking, rock climbing, high and low ropes courses, and a picnic in their summer module and the winter module included skating, snow shoeing, skiing, snowboarding, ice fishing, indoor rock climbing, and bowling (Voruganti et al., 2006). A retrospective study investigated on art and craft-based activities like painting, beading, sewing, clay work, paper craft and were used to participants of the group and its outcome in individuals with schizophrenia (Caddy et al., 2011).
McCormick et al. (2012) study found that majority of leisure activity perform by people with schizophrenia were sedentary (31%) and sedentary non-leisure (25.7%) and physically active leisure was significantly associated with lower negative emotion. The findings from (Iwasaki et al., 2014) emphasize the importance of meanings that persons with mental illness including schizophrenia gain from leisure are connection/belonging, identity, freedom/autonomy and to reduce perceptions of boredom. Also, a greater perception of being actively engaged was a significant predictor of recovery and overall physical and mental health and less frequent psychiatric symptoms. Furthermore, the use of leisure both for coping with stress and reducing boredom significantly predicted fewer psychiatric symptoms. People with psychosis who attend more leisure activities have a higher quality of life. Quality of life score was higher amongst males who attended leisure activities (Ngamaba et al., 2021).
Time use studies among schizophrenia found that, people with schizophrenia spent most of their time in passive leisure such as reading, watching TV or videos, relaxing, and sleeping and less time in active lifestyle (Hayes & Halford, 1996; Shimitras et al., 2003; Cella et al., 2016).
The authors of the reviewed articles have reported of facilitators such as leisure-based intervention being flexible (Lipskaya-Velikovsky et al., 2020), client centered, and interest based (Snethen et al., 2012), feasible, available, acceptable, and cost-effective (Voruganti et al., 2006). Barriers in implementing leisure-based interventions were the characteristic passive lifestyle of patients with schizophrenia, chronic illness, negative symptoms, cognitive deficits, time use and recreational skills deficits that evolve over time (Hayes & Halford, 1996; Shimitras et al., 2003; Cella et al., 2016).
A novel adventure- and recreation-based group intervention was found to be marginally better than standard clinical care in terms of perceived cognitive deficits and functioning, while significant improvements were observed in terms of global functioning and self-esteem, there was a strikingly significant weight loss (mean 12 lb) among study subjects over the course of the year (Voruganti et al., 2006). Studies using recreational activities as interventions found improvement in several elements of cognitive function including language understanding, executive functioning, functional capacity and visual memory, increased community involvement, developing coping skills, positive and negative schizophrenia symptoms (Lipskaya-Velikovsky et al., 2020; Snethen et al., 2012; Dean et al., 2014). A retrospective study found that use of creative activities in the inpatient setting has potential benefits for people experiencing mental health problem including reductions in self-reported psychological distress and clinician-rated symptoms and improvement in daily functioning (Caddy et al., 2011).
This scoping review attempted to investigate the use of leisure as a form of intervention for adults with schizophrenia. Research exploring leisure-based interventions for individuals with schizophrenia underscored their multifaceted benefits (Voruganti et al., 2006; Caddy et al., 2011), showcasing improvements in self-esteem, functioning, and symptom reduction, advocating for their role as complementary therapies in schizophrenia rehabilitation. Engaging in leisure activities significantly associated with lower psychiatric symptoms, coping with stress, reducing boredom, predicting recovery and overall health and increased scores on quality of life among people with schizophrenia (Iwasaki et al., 2014; McCormick et al., 2012).
Snethen et al. (2012) patient-centered intervention demonstrated enhanced planning abilities and community involvement through tailored recreational activities. Iwasaki et al. (2014) study underscored how leisure-generated meanings and active engagement significantly predict recovery and mental health improvements. Similarly, Cella et al. (2016) showed significant differences in time utilization between individuals with schizophrenia and the general population, revealing the disorder's impact on social engagement. Lipskaya-Velikovsky et al. (2020) and Ngamaba et al. (2021) highlighted the efficacy of occupational connections and increased leisure engagement, respectively, in enhancing recovery and quality of life for schizophrenia patients. These findings collectively advocate for diverse leisure-based interventions personalized to individual preferences as promising additions to standard treatments for improving the lives of those with schizophrenia. Occupational therapists have potential role in using leisure-based activities as part of their treatment to improve functioning among individuals with schizophrenia in various settings.
The duration of sessions provided ranged from 45 minutes to 1 hour. The ambiguity in the protocol followed could be due to the client centered nature of the leisure-based intervention. Developing a protocol for implementation of leisure-based intervention for persons with schizophrenia could be beneficial in various mental health settings. This would also aid in gauging the effectiveness of the leisure-based intervention in better possible ways such as through studies with higher rigor. The types of leisure activities selected in the studies varied could be due to cultural factors, feasibility, acceptability, and affordability. Nevertheless, the leisure-based interventions are easily adaptable because of which these interventions could be practiced even in the community.
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review on leisure-based interventions in individuals with schizophrenia. The limitation of our study is that only published literature in English was searched in the current review, which may have resulted in missing relevant studies. The reviewers have tried all possible ways to look for relevant articles, but individual biases of the authors may not be negated. The current review may help future researchers to conduct relevant research related to gaps identified in the current review. Most of the studies identified in the current scoping review have found that there is a positive effect of leisure-based interventions in treatment of schizophrenia, but there is the risk of bias that invites us to be cautious when interpreting these results.
There are limited studies on leisure-based interventions among individuals with schizophrenia. Future studies may focus on evaluating the effectiveness of leisure-based interventions specifically on various occupations such as activities of daily living, instrumental activities of daily living, social participation, sleep and rest, other associated factors such as self-confidence, motivation, emotional expressions, and communication skills. Also, studies could be done in developing guidelines in terms of duration and the type of modalities that could be used for persons with schizophrenia. The studies could be done in low middle income and middle-income countries using different study designs to determine the best means of conducting research on this topic. The study also highlights a need of conducting randomized controlled trials and mixed method studies to understand the effectiveness of leisure-based interventions in schizophrenia.
Overall, the purpose of this review was to gather and describe the available research on the use of leisure as an intervention, specifically among individuals with schizophrenia. The study highlights the need to conduct research using leisure-based interventions with various study designs especially randomized control trial to understand its effectiveness among individuals with schizophrenia.
No data associated with this article
Figshare: Leisure based Interventions extended files, https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.25810243.v1 (Nishad & Nagaraj, 2024).
This project contains the following extended data:
Table 1 Data charting of the included studies
Figure 1 PRISMA Chart
PRISMA Sc-R Checklist (Tricco et al., 2018)
Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY 4.0).
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Are the rationale for, and objectives of, the Systematic Review clearly stated?
Partly
Are sufficient details of the methods and analysis provided to allow replication by others?
Yes
Is the statistical analysis and its interpretation appropriate?
Not applicable
Are the conclusions drawn adequately supported by the results presented in the review?
Yes
If this is a Living Systematic Review, is the ‘living’ method appropriate and is the search schedule clearly defined and justified? (‘Living Systematic Review’ or a variation of this term should be included in the title.)
Not applicable
Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed.
Reviewer Expertise: Mental disorders. Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Psychotherapy, psychosocial interventions and and cognitive remediation.
Alongside their report, reviewers assign a status to the article:
Invited Reviewers | ||
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Version 2 (revision) 16 Sep 24 |
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Version 1 27 Jun 24 |
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