Measuring life satisfaction of self-help groups: Role of perceived social support and social empowerment

1. Introduction

New and innovative therapeutic modalities, social services, and self-help groups have drawn much research attention in recent years. Research has also examined the outcomes of self-help group participation. One of the most critical themes in self-help group research is women’s social empowerment (Cheung, Mok, & Cheung, 2005) and satisfaction with life. Women’s social empowerment is widely acknowledged as a critical driver of socioeconomic development, making it a key component of global efforts to promote progress and prosperity. Women’s social empowerment and life satisfaction have received considerable attention because of their potential to provide equal opportunities and outcomes for women, address gender inequities, alleviate poverty, and promote inclusive economic growth. Their contributions and empowerment have been instrumental in driving positive economic growth, and essential drivers of GDP growth (Chatterjee, Gupta, & Upadhyaya, 2018; Khursheed, Azim Khan, & Mustafa, 2021).

Further, Women’s self-help groups are essential for addressing poverty among marginalized people in developing countries. These organizations support viable socioeconomic growth and empower communities to raise themselves economically by providing financial services to people with little to no income Self-help groups support sustainable growth and offer possibilities for those previously excluded from formal banking (Khursheed, Azim Khan, & Mustafa, 2021).

However, in almost all cultural, social, and political affairs, women face discrimination from society and their families. Females are mistreated and face many obstacles and difficulties in their daily life, which factors restricting women’s empowerment is lack of family support (Qureshi & Shaikh, 2007). The social status of women consistently affects their life satisfaction (Kyungeh, Ji-Young, O’Connor, & Wexler, 2008), where they draw less satisfaction from having used borrowed money but gain more satisfaction from joining self-help groups (Hossain, Asadullah, & Kambhampati, 2019). This means that social status and empowerment are positively related to life satisfaction (Kyungeh, Ji-Young, O’connor, & Wexler, 2008). Self-help groups play a significant role in promoting economic endeavours and enhancing rural women’s engagement in making decisions for their families. SHGs increase women’s participation in household decision making, access to financial and economic resources, social networks, and bargaining power. The significance of women’s active engagement in decision-making, both within families and on a broader national scale, has been recognized as crucial for attaining equality and fostering peace.

Thus, the relationship among perceived social support, women’s social empowerment, and life satisfaction has attracted considerable research interest. Whether women are satisfied with their lives remains debated in the literature (Hossain, Asadullah, & Kambhampati, 2019). Empowerment is also an instrument for improving life satisfaction of self-help group members (Cheung, Mok, & Cheung, 2005). However, an in-depth investigation of the impact of empowerment on life satisfaction in overseas societies is an exciting topic for research (Cheung, Mok, & Cheung, 2005). Furthermore, the research suggests that the influence of women’s empowerment on life satisfaction should be revisited (Hossain, Asadullah, & Kambhampati, 2019). Although one study investigated the impact of life satisfaction in Western countries, further study is warranted to determine the differences in women’s life satisfaction in Asian countries (Kyungeh, Ji-Young, O’connor, & Wexler, 2008). Furthermore, some studies have presented a simplified relationship between perceived social support and life satisfaction (Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, & Wold, 2009). However, this relationship may be more complex and could have been better represented in a model allowing additional pathways. Other variables not included in those studies could also influence the relationship between perceived social support and life satisfaction (Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, & Wold, 2009). Therefore, this study introduces an alternative model incorporating women’s social empowerment as a mediating variable and decision-making and external communication as moderating variables. This research focuses on women who are members of self-help groups, unlike previous studies that primarily targeted specific populations such as aging (Sahin, Ozer, & Yanardag, 2019), students (Akanni & Oduaran, 2018), and drug addicts (Cao & Liang, 2017). Additionally, earlier studies have recommended future research to include a broader range of groups in geographically diverse areas (Sahin, Ozer, & Yanardag, 2019). Some studies have conducted online surveys that are only accessible to individuals with the necessary technological resources, which reduces inclusivity. The current study aims to address this gap. Additionally, many studies fail to capture gender-specific data or go beyond the conventional scope of research. This study seeks to fill this methodological gap.

Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the literature on the relationship between perceived social support, women’s social empowerment, and the life satisfaction of self-help group members. This study also investigated the effect of women’s social empowerment on the relationship between perceived social support and life satisfaction.

Further, the present study investigated the interaction effect of women’s decision-making and external communication in the relationship between perceived social support, social empowerment, and life satisfaction of self-help group members. In this context, this study addressed the following research problem: Does perceived social support influence women’s life satisfaction through social empowerment? Does decision-making power and external communication influence the relationship between perceived social support, social empowerment, and life satisfaction? This is the research question of concern in this study.

2. Literature

3. Materials and methods

4. Results

The outer loading of each item indicates the estimated relationship in the reflective measurement model that determines its contribution to the construct. Each indicator’s acceptable level of outer loading for any reflective model was greater than 0.6 (Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2012). Table 1 shows that the outer loading value of each indicator is above the threshold value of 0.6. Therefore, in the present study, there was no problem with the outer loading of any construct indicator. The indicator reliability is the square of each outer loading, where an indicator reliability of 0.4 or higher is acceptable (Hulland, 1999). Table 1 shows that all indicators have individual reliability values much larger than the minimum adequate level of 0.4.

Furthermore, composite reliability or construct reliability measures the internal consistency of each item in the construct. To complete the examination of the structural model, it is essential to establish the reliability and validity of the latent variables. A composite reliability value of 0.7 or more is considered acceptable (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Table 1 describes the composite reliability of all constructs as greater than the threshold level of 0.7. The convergent validity of each latent variable was assessed by examining the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). Generally, an AVE value of 0.5 or above is considered acceptable (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). The table indicates that all latent variables have an AVE value exceeding the 0.5 threshold, confirming their convergent validity. To establish discriminant validity, Fornell and Larcker (1981) recommended comparing the square root of AVE for each latent variable with its correlations with other latent variables. If the square root of AVE is greater than the correlations, discriminant validity is achieved. In this study, the square root of AVE for each construct surpassed the correlation values with other constructs, confirming discriminant validity. Additionally, we assessed potential collinearity issues within the inner model by examining the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). A VIF value below 5 (or a tolerance level above 0.2) is generally considered acceptable to avoid collinearity problems (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). Table 1 shows that all VIF values for the variables are below 5, indicating no collinearity issues in the structural model of this study.

4.1 Measurement model

In Figure 1, the numbers on the arrows are path coefficients that indicate the direct effect of one variable (cause) on another variable (effect). The weights of the different path coefficients enabled us to rank their relative statistical importance. The path coefficient values between the two constructs of the structural model should be more than 0.20 to demonstrate its significance (Wong, 2013). The path coefficient value in Figure 1 (inner model) explains that Perceived Social Support (PSS) has the most substantial effect on Social Empowerment (0.725) and Life Satisfaction (0.580). Social empowerment was a good predictor of life satisfaction (0.407).

Figure 1. Measurement model to explain the relationship between the variables.

Alt Text: Image of the measurement model, which explains the relationship between the PSS, SE, and LS. This image also explains the R² value (value in the circle) to show the overall impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

The R² values or numbers in the circle show the extent to which the other latent variables explain the latent variable’s variance. In management research, the R² of 0.75 was substantial, 0.50 is moderate, and 0.25 is weak (Wong, 2013). Figure 1 above shows that the coefficient of determination R² is 0.845 for the life satisfaction endogenous latent variable, implying that exogenous latent variables, i.e., perceived social support and social empowerment) explain 84.5% of the variance in life satisfaction of women’s self-help group members. Also, Figure 1 illustrates that the coefficient of determination R² is 0.526 for the women’s social empowerment, implying that perceived social support explains 52.6% variance in the social empowerment (SE).

Table 2 presents the path, t-value, and statistical significance values for all the variables considered for the study. The positive path coefficient value in the relationship between different constructs considered for the study indicates a direct relationship between the two constructs. Using the bootstrapping procedure in the PLS-SEM, T-statistics were checked to see if the inner model’s path coefficient was significant. The path coefficient will be substantial if the T-statistics is higher than 1.96 using a two-tailed T-test with a significance level of 5% (Wong, 2013). Table 2 explains that PSS (β=0.725, t=30.548, p=0.000) strongly influences the SE, supporting H1. Further, the exogenous variable PSS (β=0.580, t=13.781, p=0.000) and SE (β=0.407, t=9.446, p=0.000) strongly predict the endogenous variable life satisfaction, supporting H2 & H3.

Table 2. Path coefficient, T-value and P-values.

Relationship	Path coefficient	SE	T statistics	P values
Perceived Social Support (PSS) and social Empowerment (SE)	0.725	0.024	30.548	0.000
Perceived Social Support (PSS) & Life Satisfaction (LS)	0.580	0.042	13.781	0.000
Social Empowerment (SE) & Life Satisfaction (LS)	0.407	0.043	9.446	0.000

4.3 Moderation analysis

This study assessed the moderating role of DM on the relationship between PSS→ LS and SE→ LS. Without including the moderating effect (DM*PSS), the R-squared value for LS is 0.845. This shows that PSS accounts for an 84.5% change in LS. Including the interactive term, the R-square increased to 87.4%. This indicates an increase of 2.9% in variance explained by the dependent variable (LS).

Furthermore, the significance of this moderating effect was analyzed. The results indicate a negative and insignificant moderating impact of DM on the relationship between PSS and LS (β=-0.001, t=0.025, p=0.980), not supporting H5a. This shows that, with an increase in DM, the relationship between PSS and LS is not weakened. Table 4 presents a summary of the moderation analyses. A similar observation was made in the moderating effect of DM on the relationship between SE and LS, not supporting H5b.

Table 4. Moderation analysis (decision making).

Relationship	Beta	*SE	T Value	P Value
DM x PSS->LS	-0.001	0.034	0.025	0.980
DM ->LS	0.223	0.025	8.846	0.000
PSS->LS	0.457	0.040	11.465	0.000
DM x SE->LS	-0.031	0.036	0.861	0.389
SE->LS	0.371	0.033	11.279	0.000

Further, a slope analysis is presented to better understand the nature of the moderating effects ( Figure 3).

As shown in Figure 2, the line is flatter for low DM. This indicates that, at a low level of DM, the impact of PSS on LS is like that of higher DM. At higher DM, the line tends to flatter; this shows that at higher DM, the increase in PSS does not lead to a similar change in LS. In conclusion, a higher DM does not weaken the impact of PSS on LS.

Figure 2. Moderation effect of decision-making.

Alt Text: This image shows the moderating effect of decision-making in the relationship between PSS-LS & SE-LS.

Figure 3. Slope analysis.

Alt Text: This image explains the moderating effect of decision-making through the Slope Analysis (Graph). The X-axis represents PSS, and the Y-axis shows the LS.

F² Effect size

Regarding the interactive effect, the f² effect size indicates the extent to which moderation explains the endogenous construct. The f-square effect size was 0.00, which was insignificant. According to Cohen (Cohen, 1988), f² effect size values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are considered as small, medium, and large effect sizes of moderation, respectively. In this study, there was a negligible or insignificant moderating effect. This indicates that the moderating effect does not contribute significantly to explaining the endogenous construct (LS).

This study assessed the moderating role of EC on the relationship between constructs. Without including the moderating effect (EC*PSS), the R-squared value for LS is 0.845. This shows that PSS accounts for an 84.5% change in LS. Including the interactive term, the R-square increased to 89.9%. This indicates an increase of 5.4% in variance explained by the dependent variable (LS).

Furthermore, the significance of this moderating effect was analyzed as shown in Figure 4. The results indicate a positive and significant moderating impact of EC on the relationship between PSS and LS (β=-0.167, t=5.370, p=0.000), supporting H6a. This indicates that increased EC strengthens the relationship between PSS and LS. Table 5 presents a summary of the moderation analyses.

Figure 4. Moderating effect of external communication.

Alt Text: This image describes the moderating effect of external communication in the relationship between PSS-LS, PSS-SE, and SE-LS.

Table 5. Moderating effect of External Communication (EC).

Relationship	Beta	*SE	T Value	P Value
EC x PSS->LS	0.167	0.031	5.370	0.000
EC x SE->LS	-0.290	0.034	8.589	0.000
EC x PSS->SE	-0.006	0.054	0.118	0.906
EC ->LS	0.091	0.046	1.994	0.046
SE->LS	0.317	0.037	8.542	0.000

Further, slope analysis is presented to better understand the nature of the moderating effects ( Figure 5).

Figure 5. Slope analysis (moderating effect of EC).

Alt Text: This image explains the moderating effect of external communication through the Slope Analysis (Graph). The X-axis represents PSS, and the Y-axis shows the LS.

As shown in Figure 5, the line is much steeper for low EC, indicating that at a low EC level, the impact of PSS on LS is much more robust compared to higher EC. However, at higher EC, the line tends to straighten, indicating that the increase in PSS leads to a similar change in LS at higher EC. In conclusion, higher EC strengthens the impact of PSS on LS.

F² Effect size

Concerning the interactive effect, the f² effect size indicates the extent to which moderation explains the endogenous construct. The F-squared effect size was 0.136, which was significant. According to Cohen (Cohen, 1988), the f² effect size values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 are considered small, medium, and large effect sizes of moderation, respectively. In this study, there was a moderately significant moderating effect. This shows that the moderating effect significantly explains the endogenous construct (LS).

Furthermore, this study assessed the moderating role of EC on the relationship between SE and LS. The results indicate a negative and significant moderating impact of EC on the relationship between SE and LS (β=-0.290, t=8.589, p=0.000), supporting H6b. This shows that an increase in EC weakened the relationship between SE and LS. The F-squared effect size was 0.488, which was significant. This reveals that the EC has a large, significant moderating effect. This shows that the moderating effect of EC significantly contributes to explaining the endogenous construct (LS). However, the moderating effect of EC on the relationship between PSS and SE was insignificant (β=-0.006, t=0.118, p=0.906), which does not support H6c.

5. Discussion

This research contributes to the existing knowledge on the role of perceived social support (PSS) and social empowerment (SE) on life satisfaction (LS) among female self-help group members. This study also describes the mediating effect of SE on the relationship between PSS and LS. Furthermore, this study empirically tested the interaction effect of decision-making (DM) and external communication (EC) on the relationships between PSS, SE, and LS. The present study revealed a significant positive association between PSS-SE, PSS-LS, and SE-LS scores. The results of the current study corresponded with the findings of other research that explains how social support to SHG women members (family, friends, relatives, etc.) empowers her socially (Ghasemi, Badsar, Falahati, & Karamidehkordi, 2021; Dakhan, Sohu, Mustafa, Asadullah, & Sohu, 2021). The patient’s life satisfaction improved (Alorani & Alradaydeh, 2018; Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, & Wold, 2009). This implies that social support substantially affects social empowerment and life satisfaction. Social support changes women’s social status. It is evident from the findings of the present study that social support plays a significant role in women’s empowerment, which is consistent with the findings of previous studies (Reininger, Pe’rez, Flores, Chen, & Rahbar, 2012; Ghasemi, Badsar, Falahati, & Karamidehkordi, 2021; Dakhan, Sohu, Mustafa, Asadullah, & Sohu, 2021). These findings suggest that women feel empowered when support is provided (Chou et al., 2018). Support from family or friends also plays a significant role in handling stressful situations and boosting psychological wellbeing.

Moreover, perceived social support provides women with self-help group members with better interpersonal relationships and comfort, leading to better life satisfaction. Thus, it is evident from this study that social support promotes life satisfaction, which is consistent with the results of previous studies (Akanni & Oduaran, 2018; Alorani & Alradaydeh, 2018; Danielsen, Samdal, Hetland, & Wold, 2009; Shahyad et al., 2011; Ali et al., 2010). These findings signify that women who receive high social support have positive evaluations of their lives. Support may be in the form of advice, counseling, financial assistance, or timely help, which ultimately leads to a sense of life satisfaction. Therefore, women in the self-help group perceive a satisfied life if they provide social support. Family members should encourage women to participate in self-help group-related activities, which improves their social networks and, consequently, their life satisfaction. Research indicates that individuals with close friends in their congregations tend to feel more empowered and satisfied with their lives. Notably, those with more than ten friends in their congregation report significantly higher levels of satisfaction almost double that of individuals with no friends. This study suggests that frequent attendance at religious services contributes to life satisfaction not simply because of a more significant number of friends but precisely due to the presence of friends within the congregation. Therefore, social support, empowerment, and life satisfaction are interconnected. Additionally, women who regularly participate in self-help group activities may develop a stronger social network and experience greater satisfaction than those who do not. Ultimately, sitting alone in the pew does not enhance one’s life satisfaction (Lim & Putnam, 2010).

Further, this study has shown that life satisfaction is a prominent outcome of the social empowerment of female members of SHG, which is consistent with the findings of other studies (Cheung, Mok, & Cheung, 2005; Hossain et al., 2019). These findings suggest that family relations, marital relations, and self-confidence improved after joining the self-help groups, which helped boost life satisfaction. This means judging how satisfied women are with their present state of affairs, based on their social empowerment. Therefore, the judgment of the overall life satisfaction of women is based on their sense of improvement in their marital or family relations.

Therefore, this study answered affirmatively to the question: Will SHG members who experience a higher degree of social support and empowerment report a higher degree of life satisfaction? The findings also suggest that the state’s efforts in the last decade to support SHG members have effectively empowered and enhanced life satisfaction.

This is the first study to explore how social support affects SHG life satisfaction using social empowerment as an intervening variable. It was statistically proven that the impact of social support on life satisfaction was passed through social empowerment. Feelings of social support might increase the sense of empowerment of SHG members, thereby improving their life satisfaction. Therefore, the current study’s findings highlight the significance of the context within which women’s social empowerment influences the relationship between social support and life satisfaction. Moreover, this research makes a significant contribution to the existing literature by assessing the moderating effect of decision-making and external communication on the relationship between PSS-LS and SE-LS. In the present study, decision-making does not moderate the relationship between Perceived social support and Life Satisfaction (PSS-LS) and empowerment and Life Satisfaction (SE-LS). This might be due to the varying degrees of women’s decision-making power across different aspects of life and in various situations. For instance, a woman may have sole autonomy to make decisions regarding household purchases, healthcare, and visits to relatives, but she may have little control over asset purchases. Additionally, traditional beliefs and norms influence a woman’s decision-making power in some cultures. The level of decision-making power can also vary between rural and urban areas and is often affected by educational and occupational status. Furthermore, some women may hesitate to make certain decisions due to their shy nature.

However, the moderating effect of external communication on the relationship between PSS-LS and SE-LS was significant. These results indicate that external communication is an important index that reflects empowerment and life satisfaction. This means that the higher the level of external communication, the greater is the effect of social support on life satisfaction and empowerment.

Access to information serves as a powerful catalyst for empowering women, unlocking doors to new opportunities and experiences. The most prevalent avenues for this access are the flickering screens of televisions, the buzz of mobile phones, and the rich tapestry of face-to-face conversations. These forms of communication can reach women, igniting their participation in economic and social progress while enabling them to make informed decisions on issues that profoundly impact their lives. As women connect through these diverse communication channels, they weave an intricate web of social networks, fostering relationships that nurture personal growth. This interconnectedness cultivates a deep sense of self-efficacy, instilling confidence and self-assurance that radiates in their daily lives. Ultimately, this surge in empowerment leads to greater life satisfaction, encouraging women to embrace their potential and thrive in their communities.

6. Implications

The results of this paper offer significant contributions and policy recommendations for NGOs, policymakers, and governments to consider. In light of these findings, policymakers and governments can implement measures to empower women in developing countries, particularly India. Due to cultural and societal constraints, women often cannot contribute socially and economically. Therefore, policymakers must focus on the women’s community to promote gender equality. To address these challenges, the government should enhance employment and entrepreneurship opportunities for women. Access to credit at discounted rates should be made available to empower women to invest, save, and build their assets. Additionally, the government should provide health facilities, nutritional support, better housing, and other welfare measures to improve women’s overall well-being. Policymakers need to be aware that social support and empowerment are vital to women’s life satisfaction. Through the self-help group (SHG), policymakers should encourage the role of psychological counselors in conducting an assessment of female members with low social support, low empowerment, and less satisfaction. The state should provide the necessary programs for women’s participation in SHG activities to develop a social network. This helps them to create a plan of action to promote self-help group members’ sense of social support, empowerment, and life satisfaction. Furthermore, SHG managers can empower their members by facilitating solid social support, leading to life satisfaction. It is also essential to encourage and motivate women to participate in external communication, which strengthens the relationship between social support, empowerment, and life satisfaction.

7. Limitations and future scope of research

This study was a cross-sectional survey, in which it was difficult to precisely determine and analyze the causal relationships between variables over time. In addition, cross-sectional analyses may be prone to bias. Therefore, longitudinal studies should be considered in the future. The longitudinal approach can be employed to collect data repeatedly over an extended period. This method allows researchers to observe changes in empowerment and life satisfaction over time, helping them examine how various factors evolve. Maintaining consistent data collection methods throughout the study is crucial for accurate results. Additionally, future researchers could conduct qualitative studies using focus group discussions to gain deeper insights into the factors influencing women’s life satisfaction in self-help groups.

Further, the current study evaluated a sample from the three significant SHGs, Navodaya, Sthri Shakthi, and Shri Kshetra Dharmasthala Rural Development (SKDRD), ignoring the members of the other SHG are present in these areas. Future research should consider samples from all SHGs to generalize our findings. The study focused exclusively on respondents from southern Karnataka, India, due to certain constraints faced by the researchers. As a result, this limitation affects the generalizability of the research findings to a broader population of self-help groups. Furthermore, using a cross-sectional design means that all variables were measured simultaneously, which restricts our ability to establish causal relationships between social support and life satisfaction outcomes. Future studies could adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to investigate how social support and life satisfaction change. This study has addressed life satisfaction in general; however, to gain a deeper understanding of the concept, future researchers might consider examining various dimensions of life satisfaction, such as economic and psychological aspects.

8. Conclusion

This study concluded that perceived social support and social empowerment are significant in improving the life satisfaction of self-help group members. We have attempted to shed light on social support and empowerment as a mechanism to increase the life satisfaction of female SHG members. The results of the present study further revealed that social empowerment mediates the relationship between perceived social support and life satisfaction, which is a unique finding of this study. Moreover, this study demonstrated for the first time that external communication intensifies the influence of perceived social support and social empowerment on life satisfaction.

Ethics and consent: Given the non-experimental, survey-based design of this research, formal ethical approval was taken from the Institutional ethics committee. The signed informed consent was collected from each research participant. The informed consent form was included with the questionnaire. The researcher secured both verbal and written permission from all participants. The verbal consent was obtained to affirm understanding of the research and participation in the study. Furthermore, data collection was voluntary, and all responses were anonymized. Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the survey at any time, with assurances that their personal information would be kept confidential.

Approval No: IECI: 412/2022

Date of Approval: 14^th December 2022

Name: Kasturba Medical College and Kasturba Hospital Institutional Ethics Committee