How walkable are our cities for older adults? Mediation of comfort, convenience, and aesthetics

Linkage of GPI with CMT, CNV, and AST

The interconnection between GPI and the CMT aspects of walkability is pivotal for fostering pedestrian-friendly BEW. Infrastructure policies have a profound impact on the physical layout and amenities that directly impact the CMT of individuals navigating on foot (Fan & Cui, 2023). Well-designed and comfortable sidewalks, benches, and aesthetically pleasing landscaping contribute to the physical comfort of pedestrians and promote walkability (Ali & Baper, 2023). Infrastructure policies, which dictate the design and maintenance of public spaces, sidewalks, and thoroughfares, have a profound influence on the AST of the BEW (Mandeli, 2019). GPIs, which prioritize green spaces, street trees, and landscaping, not only contribute to the visual beauty of walkable areas but also provide shade and a sense of tranquility (Elderbrock et al., 2020).

While these are the findings of earlier studies, there is no empirical proof to support these findings; hence, the following hypothesis is postulated.

Linkage of CEP with CMT, CNV, and AST

CEP serves as a conduit for understanding the diverse needs and preferences of residents, fostering a collaborative approach to enhancing the CMT of public spaces (Bull et al., 2008). Through participatory planning processes and community-led initiatives, residents become active contributors to the design and activation of public spaces, ensuring that these areas align with their cultural, social, and recreational aspirations (Vercher et al., 2021). CEPs serve as crucial platforms for fostering collaborative dialogue between community members and local authorities, enabling the identification of specific needs related to CNV in walkability (Svara & Denhardt, 2010). Engagement programs often lead to the incorporation of culturally significant elements into the urban fabric, creating visually stimulating environments that celebrate diversity and enhance the overall aesthetic experience of walking (Chan et al., 2012).

There are many such conceptualizations related to these two variables; however, the empirical proof is missing, and hence, the following hypothesis is postulated.

Linkage of AUP with CMT, CNV, and AST

Comfortable walking experiences involve protection from harsh weather conditions, such as excessive sunlight or rain, and design elements such as trees, awnings, or covered walkways contribute to the overall comfort of pedestrians, allowing them to enjoy their walks in various weather conditions (Rosenberg et al., 2013). Benches strategically placed along pathways not only provide physical comfort but also contribute to a sense of CMT, encouraging older adults to engage in outdoor activities confidently (Finlay et al., 2015). AUP prioritizes the integration of green spaces, well-maintained landscapes, and public art, fostering an aesthetically pleasing environment that encourages individuals to engage in outdoor activities (Caronte-Veisz, 2022). The design of pathways, pedestrian zones, and street furniture is thoughtfully curated to blend functionality with beauty, creating visually attractive spaces that promote a sense of well-being (King et al., 2020).

While these facts are established on the basis of observations through qualitative studies, there is no empirical proof for these findings; hence, the following hypothesis is postulated.

Linkage of CMT with IPL, ISL and IQL

Physical comfort, derived from ergonomic spaces, cosy homes, and comfortable attire, directly influences an individual’s sense of relaxation and reduces physical stressors in daily life (Heijs & Stringer, 1987). CMT extends to environmental aspects as well, encompassing surroundings that offer tranquility, access to nature, and amenities that enhance daily life (Brochado & Pereira, 2017). Emotional CMT arising from positive social interactions and a welcoming atmosphere reduces feelings of isolation and anxiety and promotes a sense of security, creating an environment conducive to open communication and togetherness (Khairy et al., 2023). Emotional CMT, derived from positive social interactions, supportive relationships, and a sense of togetherness, plays a crucial role in boosting morale, reducing feelings of isolation, and promoting emotional resilience (Suaib, 2024).

While these facts are established on the basis of observations through qualitative studies, there is no empirical proof for these findings; hence, the following hypothesis is postulated.

Linkage of CNV with IPL, ISL and IQL

Physical activity is often impeded by barriers such as accessibility challenges or inconvenience, particularly for the elderly (Baert et al., 2011). The reciprocal relationship is evident, as increased CNV correlates with IPL, contributing to improved cardiovascular health, enhanced mobility, and overall well-being (Chen et al., 2011). Age-friendly communities with conveniently located healthcare facilities, accessible public spaces, and easily navigable urban layouts contribute to reduced stress and IQL for older adults (Marston & Van Hoof, 2019). Additionally, CNV transportation options, home modifications for accessibility, and user-friendly technologies further empower aged adults to engage in activities they value (Dabelko-Schoeny et al., 2020).

While these facts are established on the basis of observations through qualitative studies, there is no empirical proof for these findings; hence, the following hypothesis is postulated.

Linkage of the AST with the IPL, ISL and IQL

Aesthetically pleasing spaces, such as well-maintained parks, scenic walking paths, and thoughtfully landscaped areas, create an inviting atmosphere that encourages seniors to engage in outdoor activities (Semenzato et al., 2011). Integrating art, greenery, and aesthetic elements into urban planning and recreational areas enhances overall ambiance, making physical activity more enticing for older adults (Zhang & Kim, 2023). Aesthetically pleasing communal spaces, adorned with greenery, public art, and inviting architecture, create a welcoming atmosphere that can lead to ISL among older adults (Cattell et al., 2008). AST, including the design of public spaces and community hubs, plays a crucial role in reducing feelings of isolation and loneliness, contributing to improved mental well-being for the elderly (Leikas, 2020). The linkage between AST and an IQL through walkability for aged adults encapsulates the transformative impact of visually appealing and well-designed environments on their overall well-being (Zhao & Chung, 2017). Aesthetically pleasing walkable spaces, characterized by charming landscapes, well-maintained pathways, and thoughtful urban design, not only motivate seniors to engage in regular physical activity but also contribute to increased enjoyment during their walks (Khder et al., 2016).

While these facts are established on the basis of observations through qualitative studies, there is no empirical proof for these findings; hence, the following hypothesis is postulated.

The hypothetical model is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Hypothetical model.

Research Philosophy

This research is based on the positivist paradigm with a quantitative approach using a survey strategy. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect quantitative data via both manual and electronic formats. The convenience sampling technique was used, as random selection through unique identifiers from a population size of 170,000 older adults from the sampling frame was not practicable, as demanded by probability sampling. Moreover, convenience sampling, particularly in the context of SEM analysis, is a widely accepted technique because it provides flexibility to maximize the sample through random selection from all seven taluks from the district (e.g., Mukuka, 2024). The analysis includes both descriptive statistics through a measurement model and inferential statistics through the structural model.

The study area

The Udupi District in Karnataka, India, is the geographical location selected for this research, as it is a typical urbanizing study area in a rapidly developing country. It is also the most common type after the destinations of older adults because of its proximity to essential services, parks, shrines, recreational areas surrounded by nature with the Arabian Sea on one side, and the Western Ghats of India on the other. Moreover, Udupi is also a popular tourist and pilgrimage destination known for its temples, beaches, and historical monuments (Vikram, 2024).

Research design

This research is a correlational study with a cross-sectional design and a quantitative approach. A self-administered questionnaire built on a 5-point Likert scale was used and analysed through SEM to determine the statistical significance of the relationships between the study variables. To ensure data reliability and validity in this type of research design, measures such as Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, discriminant validity, and Rho-A were employed. This methodological approach offers a robust research design for exploring how GPI, CEP, and AUP impact the mediation of CMT, CNV and AST issues related to walkability for older adults in the built environment.

Sampling procedure

A sample of 333 older adults aged 60 years and above living in Udupi District was selected for this research via a convenience sampling technique. For the effect size (f²) = 0.3 (medium effect) and alpha error probability (α) = 0.05, the G-Power (1 - β) was found to be 0.99, confirming the adequacy of the sample size. The sample was drawn from various BEW areas within Udupi districts, ensuring diverse representations of the age groups of older adults, genders, marital statuses, educational backgrounds, and socioeconomic statuses.

Questionnaire design

The questionnaire design followed the standard procedure of selecting items from standard scales designed by earlier researchers. Items from the Urban Accessibility Index (UAI), Infrastructure Quality Index (IQI), and Sustainable Infrastructure Index (SII) (Alderete. 2020; Benítez-Márquez et al., 2022; Lai & Cole, 2023) were chosen for GPI; items from the Community Engagement Scale (CES), Community Participation Scale (CPS), and Citizen Participation Assessment Tool (CPAT) (Doolittle & Faul, 2013; Chipuer & Pretty. 1999) were chosen for CEP, and items from the WHO Age-Friendly Cities Questionnaire (WAFQ), Age-Friendly Communities Scale (AFCS), and Built Environment Assessment Tool (BEAT) (Dikken et al., 2020; Glanz et al., 2016; Gibberd, 2019) were chosen for the AUG; the Pedestrian Comfort and Safety Assessment (PCSA) (Asadi-Shekari et al., 2015) and Perceived Comfort Scale (PCS) (Zegeer, 2006) were chosen for the CMT scale; the Pedestrian Convenience Sampling Assessment Tool (PCAT) (Aghaabbasi et al., 2018) and Walkability Audit Tool (WAT) (Soltani et al., 2018) were chosen for CNV; the Walkable Design Visual Quality Assessment (VQA) (Abdelfattah & Nasreldin, 2019) was chosen for the AST scale; the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) (Armstrong & Bull, 2006) was chosen for IPL; and the Neighborhood Social Cohesion Questionnaire (NSCQ) (Agampodi et al., 2015) was chosen for ISL. The items in the questionnaire were modified slightly to suit the local context; hence, reliability and validity were reassessed through Cronbach’s alpha reliability measures.

The first section of the questionnaire was reserved for assimilating sociodemographic information, and the second section comprised 5-point Likert scale items to measure the perceptions of BEW by older adults of GPI, CEP, AUP, CMT, CNV, AST, IPL, ISL, and IQL.

Data collection process

The data collection process was carried out between March and June 2024. The researcher personally collected hardcopies of the self-administered questionnaire filled out by participants in their homes, parks, and community centers across different locations in the Udupi district. The items in the questionnaire were briefly presented by the researcher to the participants, highlighting their importance during the personal model of data collection, and a brief explanation of the research was provided in the Google Form with the contact details of the researcher to revert back in case of any difficulty. Google forms were also distributed through contacts in community centres, old-age homes, health care centres, and recreation clubs. While 186 hard copies were collected through hardcopies of the completed questionnaire, the remaining 147 were obtained through Google Forms.

Ethical considerations

The study was conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines, with the rights and well-being of the participants being protected. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before the commencement of data collection. Anonymity and the confidentiality of the responses were declared in the questionnaire, which communicated well to all the respondents. They were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any point without any consequences. The Institutional Ethics Committee (IEC) had formally given ethical clearance for the conduct of this research, having ratified the entire research procedure.

Sociodemographic characteristics of the samples

Table 1 shows a nearly equal gender distribution, with 52.9% male and 47.1% female respondents observed in the sample selected for this research. The age group of 60–65 years (45.0%) was the majority, followed by the age group of 65–70 years (40.9%). Among the respondents, the majority were married (41.5%), the next in the line widowed (26.1%), followed by unmarried (16.8%), with representations from other categories such as divorced (6.9%), separated (6.6%), and in the ‘other’ category (2.1%), which includes live-in relationships. Furthermore, slightly more than half of the respondents (51.3%) had a bachelor’s degree, followed by a master’s degree (26.4%), and a smaller percentage had diplomas (14.5%), while a small percentage had certificates (3.6%) or doctor of philosophy degrees (3.6%). Finally, the majority of participants (47.8%) belonged to middle-income group-1 (7,150–14,300 USD per annum), followed by middle-income group-2 (34.2%) (14,300–21,450 USD per annum), low-income group (11.7%) (3,565–7,150 USD per annum), and high-income group (6.3%) (greater than 21,450 USD per annum), with a small number (4.2%) below the poverty line (less than 3,565 USD per annum).

Measurement model

The reliability and validity measures in Table 2 demonstrate a high level of internal consistency and construct validity for all the variables, with Cronbach’s alpha values for all the constructs above 0.70, with most values exceeding 0.90, indicating high internal reliability, and the composite reliability scores for all the constructs also surpass 0.90, confirming the reliability of the construct (cut-off of 0.7 for both; McNeish, 2018). Internal consistency is also measured through Rho_A values, which in this research range from 0.79--0.96, demonstrating a high to very high level of acceptability (cut-off=0.7; Trejo et al., 2024). The factor loadings were well above 0.70 ( Table 2 and Figure 2), suggesting that each item strongly represents its respective construct (cut-off=0.7; Kamranfar et al., 2023). The average variance extracted (AVE) values were significantly greater, indicating that the variance captured by the construct’s items was sufficiently high, with minimal error (cut-off=0.5; Cheung et al., 2024).

Figure 2. Measurement model.

Table 3 demonstrates discriminant validity, which confirms that each construct is distinct from the rest of the constructs. The square roots of the AVE values (shown on the diagonal in bold) for each construct are all greater than the correlations with other constructs, indicating adequate discriminant validity. This pattern across all the constructs confirms that each construct in the model uniquely measures its intended concept, supporting the robustness of the measurement model. Thus, the indices in the measurement model confirm that the reliability and validity of the data and the questionnaire, respectively, are acceptable and that the data may be subjected to structural model analysis for hypothesis testing.

Figure 2 depicts path coefficients. This is the strength and direction of the relationships between the constructs in the model. AUP has a strong positive influence on AST, with a path coefficient of 0.82, indicating that improvements in AUP likely enhance perceptions of AST. On the other hand, CEP shows weak and negative associations with AST (-0.09), CMT (-0.21), and CNV (-0.10), indicating that these programs may not effectively support perceptions of aesthetics, comfort, or convenience. AST positively impacts ISL, with a coefficient of 0.59, and IPL, with a coefficient of 0.43, indicating that safety perceptions are influential in promoting socialization and physical activity. Finally, CNV has a notably strong positive relationship with IQL (0.70), suggesting that convenience is critical in enhancing the quality of life for older adults in this model.

Structural model

Table 4 shows that AUP has a positive significant relationship with AST (t=2.72; p=0.01), CMT (t=5.87; p=0.00), and CNV (t=4.62, p=0.00); AST has a positive significant relationship with IPL (t=2.45; p=0.01) and ISL (p=2.93; t=0.00); CMT has a positive significant relationship with IPL (t=3.56; t=0.00); and CNV has a positive significant relationship with IQL (t=2.70; p=0.01). Thus, the following hypotheses are supported ( Table 4, Figure 3):

Figure 3. Structural model.

The rest of the hypotheses are unsupported.

Practical implications

The practical implications of this research are for policy makers and urban designers in the form of suggestions to encourage the walkability of older adults. The specific implications are as follows.