Strategies for promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from low-income countries

Notable developments in Zambia’s poultry sector

In the past decades, Zambia’s poultry sector has undergone significant changes in terms of growth motivated by policy shifts. In the 1990s, the Zambian government made economic reforms in the agriculture sector through a liberalized market system to promote private sector participation in delivering goods and services (Rakner 2003; Bonaglia 2009). During this period, the privatization of most government-run entities occurred. In 2005, a ten-year program explicitly for the poultry sector was established (Bagopi et al. 2014). The plan aimed to increase efficiency and productivity in the commercial poultry sector.

The agriculture reforms and poultry sector plan led to new chicken genetics, improved nutrition, enhanced health services and farming practices in the Zambian poultry industry. Within six years, integrated and standalone breeders, such as Zambeef-Rainball, Pioneer-Bokomo, Tiger-Ross, Country bird, Panda, and Hybrid, were established (Bagopi et al. 2014; PAZ 2021). Further, a US$95 million investment by Zambeef-Rainball breeders triggered unprecedented growth in the poultry sector. From 2007 to 2012, the production of day-old chicks rose by over 100% from 27 to 65 million per annum, and over 50,000 jobs were created (Bagopi et al. 2014).

In contrast, such changes occurred much earlier in highly industrialized nations, as demonstrated by policies governing their poultry industry and gains made by consumers and animal welfare advocates (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). Generally, changes in Zambia’s poultry industry encouraged SSF to participate in producing commercial chickens, such as broilers and layers, defying their conservative nature. However, the participation of SSF was shortened by the high production costs and anti-competition tendencies they faced in the commercial poultry sector (Bagopi et al. 2014; Mueller et al. 2015).

According to PAZ (2021), over 5% average annual growth was observed in Zambia’s poultry sector in the past decade. The MFL estimated a 20% growth in the Zambian IC sector from 2012 to 2017, translating to a 4% annual growth (MFL 2019). The increased demand for chicken meat and eggs stimulated this development. With increased household incomes and a shift to protein-rich diets among urban households, the primary buyers of chickens and eggs, the potential of the IC sector rose (Queenan et al. 2016). The socioeconomic roles of IC have also been significant in this evolution. A study conducted in 2012 found that over one million smallholders out of 1,418,000 agricultural households interviewed raised over 12 million IC in Zambia (Lubungu and Mofya 2012). In this study, farmers in Eastern, Southern, and Central provinces owned half of the chickens, whereas the other half belonged to households in the seven regions. Over a decade later, the population of IC nearly doubled to 21 million birds among the 1.6 million households nationwide (ZAMSTAT 2022).

Production systems practiced by small-scale farmers

The method used to produce chickens significantly affects productivity and quality, resulting from management differences. In SSA, farmers practice three main systems of producing chickens. The most common is the low-input and low-output free-range system, where the chickens scavenge for feed without healthcare interventions (Ochieng et al. 2013). Other methods include the semi-intensive, in which the chickens are partially allowed to scavenge, coupled with feed supplementation, and the intensive, in which the chickens are entirely confined and fed throughout their growth period (Guèye 2000; Okeno et al. 2013). Free-range and semi-intensive systems are considered beneficial to SSF due to negligible start-up costs, i.e., feeds and drugs (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016).

However, improving practices on disease control, shelter, marketing, feed supplementing, and exploiting available feed resources may increase production, efficiency, and profitability among SSF in the region (Goromela et al. 2006). Generally, SSF can practice any of the three production systems depending on their constraints and socioeconomic status (Guèye 2000). The intensive production system used mainly by commercial chicken farmers is unsustainable for SSF because of the high production costs, disease prevalence, and the oligopolistic market controlled by big breeders and producers (Bagopi et al. 2014; Ochieng et al. 2013).

Productivity of common indigenous chicken breeds

Smallholder farmers rear different chicken breeds as part of their socioeconomic ventures. In Zambia, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO) highlighted IC breeds that rural communities raised. Some known IC breeds include the common Zambi, Naked Neck, Dwarfs or Short-legged, Frizzled, Feathered Legs, and Short-Tailed, with live body weights (BW) of 1.3-2.0 kg at over 180 days of age (MACO 2003; PAZ 2021). The size and weight at maturity vary between mature females and males. Studies in Nigeria and Botswana suggest significant differences in live BW between mature female and male chickens, with the former weighing (0.7-2.1 kg) and the latter in the range of (1.2-3.2 kg) IC (Guèye 2000). In Benin, some common IC breeds, such as Koklogbo, Komaloe, Adjagble, Win, and Dingbannon, are reared by rural communities (Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Compared to broilers at 42 days, IC at the same age will be smaller due to the slow growth rate. The performance differences observed between IC and commercial chicken breeds are primarily controlled by genetics and environment (FAO 2015). Recently, Zambia’s poultry sector saw the introduction of new exotic chicken breeds. Some semi-improved free-range chicken breeds include the Boschvelds, Kruoillers, Black Australorps, and Brahma (PAZ 2021). Although the improved free-range breeds are perceived to mature early and be more productive, the high prices for day-old chicks, increased management demands, and susceptibility to diseases render them inaccessible and unsustainable to resource-poor farmers in Zambia (PAZ 2021). In contrast, the negligible costs of producing the IC encourage farmers to keep indigenous breeds. Further, a high benefit-cost ratio in IC is economically vital as any selling price translates to profit (Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016).

Rodríguez et al. (2011) compared the production parameters of IC and exotic free-range chicken breeds in their studies. They assessed the impact of Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination programs on the profitability of the two ventures. They reported that IC laid ten eggs per cycle and achieved 2.4 cycles per year, 70% egg hatchability, 150 days of growth at 1.1 kg live BW, and 120 days for brooding and maintenance. In contrast, exotic free-range chickens had slightly higher productivity of 12 eggs per cycle, three cycles per year, an 80% hatching rate, and a somewhat short period of brooding and maintenance at 89 days (Rodríguez et al. 2011). They concluded IC were more profitable for the resource-poor farmers than exotic free-range chickens. The latter had higher nutritional and management demands with increased flock size.

Food source

The contribution of IC to food needs for rural households is much more significant compared to larger livestock such as cattle and pigs. Rural families in SSA have met the much-needed animal-based protein by consuming chicken meat and eggs (FAO 2015; Melesse 2014; Ochieng et al. 2013; Queenan et al. 2016). Previous studies by Guèye (1998, 2000) demonstrated how a farmer who started with one pullet in Tanzania gained nearly 170 chickens, 1,100 eggs, and 47 kg of chicken meat in five years. This study demonstrated significant changes in the farmers’ food and nutritional security and livelihood within five years.

Production trends between 2009 and 2017 in selected countries in SSA highlight the contribution of native chickens to national food security through the supply of poultry meat and eggs (FAO 2022; Vernooij et al. 2018). In 2016, IC comprised 82.4% of Kenya’s 40.4 million chickens, and the sector produced over 1,530 million eggs annually. In contrast, in Uganda, 26.6 million, equivalent to 66.5% of the total chickens’ population, were IC, and the poultry sector produced over 856 million eggs. In comparison, Tanzania had over 37 million IC representing 55.2% of the national flock and producing above 1,780 million eggs annually (Vernooij et al. 2018). The growth in the IC sector was reported between 2010 and 2020, in which Benin had 37.6% growth from 16.5 million total flocks, Nigeria dropped by 13.7% from 192 million, while Zambia expanded by 17.4% from 35 million, and the Gambia’s IC sector rose by 64.7% from 0.85 million (FAO 2022). These reports and other studies demonstrate the role played by IC in addressing the demand for animal-based protein in the region.

Several factors influence consumption levels for poultry and poultry products. These factors include chickens’ health status, productivity, and general performance. Communities that experience higher chicken mortalities due to poultry diseases exhibit low consumption of IC and associated products. In these communities, fertilized eggs are strictly kept for hatching and replacement stock, while mature chickens are sold to raise household incomes (de Bruyn et al. 2018). There has been a steady increase in chicken meat and egg intake globally. From 2004 to 2012, a 9% increment in consumption of chicken meat to 63 million MT and a 20% rise in egg consumption to 55.5 million MT were reported (FAO 2015). The quantity of eggs consumed annually per person varies from one country to another. Between 2009 and 2017, Kenya, Tanzania, and Nigeria experienced per capita egg consumption reductions by 16.7% to 0.5, 6.3% to 1.5, and 43.8% to 0.9, respectively. Generally, the egg consumption rates in SSA were significantly low at 2.1 eggs/person/year compared to the global consumption of 13-151 eggs (Vernooij et al. 2018). The global estimate is consistent with the reported average of over 150 eggs per person per year in 2017, as stated by FAO (2022).

The consumption of IC meat and eggs also highly depends on the community’s socioeconomic status and productivity and, in the future, the human population’s growth (FAO 2015; Guèye 1998, 2000; Klingholz 2020). In Tanzania, the SSF consumed less than half of the chickens they produced and sold the rest to rural areas, whereas in Zambia, the rural families consumed more than half of IC and only sold 20% to urban areas (Queenan et al. 2016). Further, communities assisted with sustainable interventions to improve productivity exhibited changes in consumption patterns for chicken meat and eggs (Dumas et al. 2017).

Household income

Free-range IC enterprises are considered low input because of the low capital requirements. The minimum standards create an easy way out of poverty for most resource-poor communities in SSA (Guèye 1998, 2000; Dolberg 2007). These chickens significantly contribute to household incomes and livelihood assets for rural communities in the region. Farmers acquire finances to meet their daily needs and possible future investments (Dumas et al. 2017; Guèye 2000). For example, when family A raised US$180 from selling 30 chickens, they allocated US$72 for daily household needs, US$54 for buying clothes, US$36 for business, and US$18 for purchasing replacement stock (Guèye 2000). Some farmers invest their incomes during surplus and purchase food sources in times of hunger (Dumas et al. 2017). The meticulous allocation of revenues from IC highlights how valuable the chickens are for rural livelihoods. Farmers could also use IC as a medium of exchange. For example, in the Gambia, SSF exchanged five full-grown hens with an mature sheep and 25 hens with one mature cow (Guèye 1998, 2000). This trend also illustrated how owning IC was as good as having money in savings accounts, enabling rural communities to access other livelihood assets.

Gender empowerment

Indigenous chickens are also considered socioeconomic and gender equalizers, favouring women and children in most parts of SSA (Kitalyi 1998; Guèye 2000; Moreki et al. 2010; Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016). Over 70% of IC in SSA are owned and managed by women and children, enabling them to access various livelihood assets (Guèye 2000; Dolberg 2007). However, some researchers are sceptical and cautious about the contribution of IC to gender equality in rural communities. For example, in certain societies in Tanzania, women and children could only manage the chickens, but 76% of men had the power to decide on the marketing and use of IC (Guèye 1998). Previous research documented similar trends in Mozambique, where prolonged wars and floods significantly reduced the number of cattle and goats, increasing men’s interest and control over IC (Guèye 1998, 2000).

Social-cultural-religious uses

Some social-cultural and religious functions of IC among rural communities are usually a combination of incomes, consumption, gifts, medicinal and other uses (FAO 2015). In SSA, rural communities sacrifice IC during traditional ceremonies and rituals, share cocks as gifts to their guests at cultural events such as weddings, and use the cocks for traditional medicines, including sexual stimulation for men and general hygiene through scavenging (Guèye 1998, 2000). White feathered chickens are vital for traditional medicines and sacrifices in Somalia, Cameroon, and Zambia (Guèye 2000). Attaching value to the colour or appearance of indigenous livestock is also a pricing technique under traditional markets in low-income countries (Mueller et al. 2015). The cultural significance of IC is exhibited during the migration of people from one community to another. For example, when families relocate from rural communities and urban areas, they carry food and plants and may introduce chicken breeds to their new settlements (FAO 2015).

Other uses

Indigenous chickens are significant in local interventions such as community-based breeding programs. During these programs, farmers share and incubate fertilized eggs for desired breeds of chickens within the communities (Dumas et al. 2017; Guèye 2000). Farmers also use IC as security against risks, as ornaments during social events, and as hobbies. For example, farmers secured nearly 71% IC in Ghana for breeding purposes (Guèye 1998, 2000). These communities strategically selected desired males and females for continued production (FAO 2015; Guèye 2000). Similarly, eggs are incubated and hatched in Ethiopia for continued chicken production in rural communities. Guèye (1998, 2000) also reported combined uses for IC in terms of income, consumption, and Barter in Zimbabwe and Nigeria.

Loss of indigenous chicken animal genetic resources

Continued loss of IC-AnGR is a concern that may potentially affect researchers and rural communities in SSA. Some of the negative results of the loss of IC-AnGR may be irreversible if not mitigated in time (FAO 2015). The world’s animal biodiversity status report highlighted that from 2005 to 2014, the livestock breeds classified at risk of extinction increased by 2% from 15%, while 58% were in the unknown risk status group (FAO 2015). The report stated that chicken breeds were the most vulnerable among the avian species, with the highest numbers at risk. The report revealed that 3.5% (60) of chicken breeds were extinct, 21.3% (368) were at risk, a combined sum of chicken breeds in the critical, critical maintained, endangered, and endangered maintained.

Further, 63% (1089) were under unknown risk status, and 12.3% were considered not at risk (FAO 2015). Some of the factors identified by the report as drivers of the erosion of IC-AnGR were uncontrolled cross-breeding, economic forces, change in market demands, damage to natural resources, climate change, and disease outbreaks, among others (FAO 2015).

FAO’s second report on biodiversity for agriculture provides a warning and insights on the status of chicken breeds whose erosion may have future socioeconomic impacts on rural communities. Over 80% of rural farmers in SSA keep IC, significantly contributing to the IC sector and making them primary custodians of IC-AnGR in the region (Dolberg 2007; FAO 2015; Guèye 2000). These communities are likely to suffer if there are no measures to stop or reduce the loss of IC-AnGR. Adopting exotic chicken breeds may suppress the highly adapted IC breeds, which are suitable and sustainable for scavenging and natural brooding methods (Riise et al. 2004; Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Poultry diseases

Poultry diseases are among the challenges that have affected small-scale producers of chickens in SSA. Most farmers have resorted to keeping IC which cope relatively well in diseased environments (FAO 2015). Reconsideration of rearing IC is a viable socioeconomic strategy in that livelihoods would improve sustainably because of the easiness of managing these chickens. However, the gravity and impact of disease on the IC sector require effective and sustainable interventions (Guèye 1998, 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). Some researchers suggest that the low-input, low-output scavenging systems are less successful than the intensive systems that produce broilers and layers due to uncontrolled poultry diseases (FAO 2015; Rischkowsky and Pilling 2007). There are significant losses recorded among rural farmers resulting from poultry diseases. Queenan et al. (2016) reported that suspected ND and fowl pox potentially causes 40-100% mortalities of IC, especially towards the end of the dry season in SSA. Poultry diseases equally afflict Zambia’s IC sector. In 2017, the highly pathogenic H5N8 avian influenza negatively impacted the country’s poultry sector, leading to thousands of birds being culled (PAZ 2021). Common diseases such as typhoid, infectious coryza, Gumboro, worm infestation, and external parasites have also contributed to the poor performance and high mortalities experienced in the IC sector (Phiri et al. 2007; Simainga et al. 2011; Mubamba et al. 2018).

Inadequate disease control measures among SSF have exacerbated the prevalence of poultry diseases. Most small-scale producers in the IC sector depend on natural remedies for controlling poultry diseases (FAO 2015). For instance, Guèye (2000) reported that over 79% of rural farmers use traditional herbs and plants to treat poultry diseases and that 50% of mortalities in the IC sector occurred within the first four weeks of chicken raising. Researchers reported concerns about using traditional remedies to treat diseases by rural farmers. In 2012, over 27% of SSF in Zambia relied on traditional medication, and less than 15% used veterinary drugs, resulting in 60% of the IC dying (Lubungu and Mofya 2012). According to FAO, poultry diseases and poor disease management are rated at 28% among factors responsible for the erosion of chicken breeds (FAO 2015). Other causes include the introduction of exotic breeds at 22%, uncontrolled cross-breeding at 63%, and climate change at 16% (FAO 2015). Recent studies identified the scavenging system, mainly practiced by SSF, among the factors responsible for spreading ND in East Africa (Mujyambere et al. 2022). These studies advocate for cheap vaccines, innovative extension methods, and improved disease control skills for farmers. Despite the disease prevalence observed in IC, there are some beneficial adaptability and genetic gains through natural selection which farmers can exploit.

High input prices and nutritional limitations

Poor nutrition is among the factors for the poor performance of the IC sector in SSA. These nutritional problems are mainly due to high feed costs, poor chicken feeding regimes, and feed shortages (Melesse 2014; PAZ 2021). In SSA, the high feed costs are also attributable to the continued price increments in feed ingredients such as soya beans and maize (Bagopi et al. 2014; Vernooij et al. 2018). In the past five years, prices for poultry feed, feed ingredients, and live inputs have increased significantly in Zambia. Analysis of PAZ’s weekly reports for the first quarter from 2016 to 2021 highlights the depth of this problem. The reports highlighted the following variations in prices; the solvent-extracted soybean meal increased by 27.7% from US$23.50 per 50 kg, broiler starter increased by 45.3% from US$20.10 per 50 kg, and prices for broiler grower increased by 44% from US$19.30 per 50 kg. The price for broiler finisher increased by 45.9% from US$18.50 per 50 kg, while a 49% increase in layer mash from US$ 14.70 per 50 kg was observed (PAZ 2021).

Costs of live inputs also went up during the same period. The prices for the (1-7) day(s) old chicks of improved free-range chickens, layers, and broilers increased by 87.5%, 83.3%, and 125% from US$0.80, US$0.60, and US$0.40 per bird, respectively. The high prices for feed and other live inputs have seriously hindered the active participation of poor-resource farmers in SSA’s commercial poultry sector (Vernooij et al. 2018; PAZ 2021). Other valuable market data analyzed included prices for live pullets, broilers, spent layers, and IC, which increased by 64.8%, 57%, 38.5%, and 61.5% from US$8.90, US$3.00, US$2.60, and US$3.90 per bird, respectively (PAZ 2021). In contrast, the data also illustrated the market opportunity for producers of IC attributed to favourable prices per bird. Previous studies compared the effects of feed costs and profitability of enterprises for exotic and IC under a free-range system. Researchers found that the costs for feed increased sharply with the increase in flock size for exotic free-range chickens, while there was minimal or no change in production costs with the rise in flock sizes for IC (Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Limited supplementary feeding and a lower plane of nutrition under the scavenging system lead to mortalities and reduced consistency in the quality, quantity, and size of chickens and eggs (Queenan et al. 2016). Usually, the scavenging system leaves the birds to roam and scavenge for feed. Notable feed sources include insects, termites, seeds, grains and earthworms, kitchen waste, maize bran, leafy vegetables, and other cheap feed sources that are valuable in the free-range system (Mwalusanya et al. 2002; Goromela et al. 2006; Mapiye et al. 2008).

There are also fluctuations in the availability of scavenged feed resources between each harvest under rain-fed farming systems in SSA (de Bruyn et al. 2018). For example, in Zambia, the scavenging chickens have access to high-protein insects and earthworms in the rainy season (December to April) and high-energy feed sources, mainly from grains during the harvest time from May to August. However, a severe shortage of nutritious feeds in the hot and dry season leads to poor health, malnutrition, and high mortalities (Queenan et al. 2016). The dry season requires deliberate feed supplementation by farmers to mitigate adverse effects on the chickens’ performance (de Bruyn et al. 2018). In other parts of SSA, the breeding of black soldier fly larvae and maggots as protein sources are being experimented with and may improve nutrition in the IC sector, especially in periods of feed scarcity (Kenis et al. 2014).

Inadequate policies and regulations to support the Indigenous chicken sector

The existing policies in the poultry sector are generally inadequate and widely vary across SSA. Most policies and trade restrictions favour commercial poultry producers (FAO 2015). For example, in Namibia, poultry producers legally brine broiler meat at 20%; in Botswana, commercial producers can supply 75% of poultry meat demand, although brined poultry meat is not allowed (Bagopi et al. 2014). There is also inadequate support for infrastructure development in the IC sector, especially among rural communities. Infrastructure development is biased toward larger enterprises (Dolberg 2007). Most governments in SSA allocate more funds to infrastructure development, favouring larger livestock enterprises, predominantly run by commercial entities.

Furthermore, minimal attention to SSF involved in the production of IC, despite these farmers being part of the primary sources of data when designing policies on livestock infrastructure and funding (Dolberg 2007; FAO 2015). For instance, Zambia’s livestock infrastructure support project funded by African Development Bank focused on constructing dairy and beef infrastructure. Further, the Second National Agriculture Policy of 2016 to 2020 in Zambia did not provide a good roadmap for value addition and market participation for small-scale producers of IC (MFL 2017). These inadequate policies exacerbate the problems experienced in the IC sector, and rural farmers feel neglected by political leaders and poorly represented by scientists (Bagopi et al. 2014; Dolberg 2007).

Researchers claim that low-income countries have witnessed economic growth, particularly in the private sector. They suggest that the growth trends are motivated by inadequate regulations and weak policies promoting unsustainable production, harming ecosystems, AnGR and markets (FAO 2015). For example, poultry products worth millions of dollars are imported into SSA from overseas, negatively impacting the local poultry sectors in the region. In 2018, South Africa imported frozen poultry products of mixed parts valued at over US$65 million from different sources in Brazil (PAZ 2021). These posed a public health threat because they lacked traceability and affected the local poultry sector.

Deliberate interventions are required to protect the local poultry sector. The Poultry Association of Zambia highlighted instances where some countries had implemented protective measures for their poultry sector. In Ghana, over US$60 million of poultry products were imported into the country, flooding the local market in 2018 (PAZ 2021). These importations prompted the Ghanaian Poultry Association to engage the government in introducing quotas on poultry imports to protect local poultry farmers. In Namibia, the government banned the importation of poultry products to cushion the impact on the local poultry industry. In Zambia, the Poultry Association continued to engage the Zambian government to promote policies capable of protecting and enhancing both commercial and IC sectors (PAZ 2021). Policy researchers propose the inclusion of consumption and other considerations in current policies and legislation regarding livestock production and environmental management (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). This approach aims to improve strategies, maximize community benefits, and minimize food waste.

Low access to formal and stable markets

Access to organized markets by small-scale producers is essential for the sustainable development of the IC sector. In SSA, farmers in this sector face barriers preventing them from accessing formal markets. These obstacles are associated with market standards and requirements such as selling frozen whole or portions of chickens, packaging, labelling, and selling from standard outlets (Bagopi et al. 2014). Small-scale producers in the IC sector cannot compete with larger commercial entities because they neither own the required facilities and brands nor organized sales outlets (Simainga et al. 2011; Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). With many obstacles to the established markets, few SSF can only sell their chickens or eggs directly to these markets through group contractors and intermediaries who manage most market channels (Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). This way is also limited, making it difficult for small-scale producers to succeed.

Generally, most rural farmers in Zambia sell their chickens through informal places like the roadside, village markets, direct to consumers, and through their backyards (Queenan et al. 2016; Mubamba et al. 2018; PAZ 2021). However, in some parts of the country, informal markets have recently transformed into essential selling points, making it possible for some farmers to organize and meet consumers’ demands on quality and quantity. For example, “Tuesday and Saturday markets” have become popular in urban and rural areas of the country (Tschirley and Munguzwe 2010). In the Northern part of Zambia, this traditional market is called “Munada,” where communities and traders agree on the date and place for a weekly market day at which most agricultural products are exchanged or sold (Nyirenda 2016). According to Nyirenda (2016), “Munada” is a concept derived from East Africa for open markets practiced by local traders who regularly travel from village to village selling their goods.

Low access to reliable markets generally affects IC sales, prices, and consumption dynamics in rural communities. For example, farmers in Tanzania sold twice more village chickens and eggs to rural areas than they consumed and sold IC at US$3.72 per live bird (Queenan et al. 2016). In contrast, producers of IC in Zambia ate more than half of their chickens and only sold 20% to urban areas at an average price of US$3.37 per bird (Queenan et al. 2016). The variation in selling points, prices, and consumption levels shows how undefined and informal the markets for IC are in SSA.

Poor housing facilities

Researchers have identified the lack of suitable housing for IC as an obstacle to the growth of the IC sector. This problem is prevalent among resource-poor farmers who cannot afford such facilities. As a result, the absence of reliable and functional housing facilities for IC in scavenging systems has impeded the progress of the IC sector in the region (Melesse 2014; Mujyambere et al. 2022). Some farmers keep their chickens in undeveloped poultry structures at night to secure them from predators and bad weather (Simainga et al. 2011). In many cases, chickens seek shelter in trees, making them vulnerable to predators, such as cats and dogs (Guèye 2000; Melesse 2014; Simainga et al. 2011). Because of the poor status of chicken housing, theft, predation, and environmental hazards are common, significantly contributing to losses observed in the IC sector. For instance, in the Western province of Zambia, a survey of 243 farmers found that 93% and 84% of the households interviewed attributed chicken losses to predation and thefts, respectively (Simainga et al. 2011). Some attribute the housing problem to non-uniform practices and a lack of appropriate management information among smallholder producers across SSA (Mujyambere et al. 2022). To assist SSF, innovative extension systems to impart skills are recommended.

Increased consumer demand for indigenous chicken meat and products

Despite the barriers and challenges experienced by SSF in the IC sector, most rural communities and consumers have continued benefiting from the industry. In the past decades, the consumers’ demand and preferences for IC have steadily grown (Bett et al. 2013; Melesse 2014). The increased importance of IC results from the consumers’ perceived good taste, delicate texture, and health benefits, with some preferring male chickens for their large size and hens for their tenderness (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). Although in South Africa, studies by Dyubele et al. (2010) found that consumers preferred broiler meat to IC due to tenderness and other attributes. Generally, the increased demand for IC meat has led to a substantial increase in the prices over commercial chicken, potentially creating an opportunity for SSF (Alders and Pym 2009; Guèye 2000; Melesse 2014; PAZ 2021; Queenan et al. 2016).

Studies in parts of SSA have demonstrated consumer preferences and the ability to pay for IC and products. For example, in Benin, consumers preferring IC were willing to pay US$2.67 per bird compared to US1.30 for each exotic chicken (Queenan et al. 2016; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Similar trends were reported in Zambia in the past five years, where IC sold nearly twice the broiler price (PAZ 2021). The Poultry Association of Zambia highlighted that in 2016, live IC sold at US$4.0 per bird, which was 33% higher than broilers, while in the first quarter of 2021, and IC fetched US$6.40 per bird, which was 73% higher than the price for broilers. This trend is consistent with some studies, where IC prices were high, mainly when sold to consumers in traditional markets and familiar places, as proof of buying authentic native chickens (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016).

Population growth and food demand

The growth in the human population will have an equally significant impact on the demand for animal-based foods. The need for healthy livestock products such as IC meat, eggs, and other chicken products will likely increase, and consumers’ willingness to pay for the desired food quantities will improve in SSA (FAO 2015; Melesse 2014). Projections from FAO show that from 2005 to 2050, the global human population will grow to 9.8 billion, of which over 46% of growth is projected in SSA, and a 60% increase in food demand forecast (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; FAO 2015). Food consumption of less than 2500 (Kcal/person/day) and annual undernutrition levels 20% higher than other regions are projected during this period (2005-2050) and require a proportional increase in food supply to mitigate hunger (FAO 2015). Farmers’ commitment and related policy support from the government through agribusiness may turn human population growth into opportunities for producers of IC in the region. Policy researchers have identified an increased need for youths to participate in agribusiness and farming to contribute to food security and socioeconomic demands for SSA in the next three decades (Klingholz 2020).

Food consumption patterns

Apart from increased food demand, population dynamics are likely to affect the consumption pattern for animal-based protein, which accounts for 40% of the total protein consumed by humans (Lebbie and Ramsay 1999; Boland et al. 2013; Mueller et al. 2015). Some scholars also predict that the emergence of the middle class will highly influence meat consumption in low-income countries, requiring technology and innovation to meet the demand for meat during ‘the livestock revolution’ (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). Globally, from 2000 to 2050, researchers predict an 82% increase in meat consumption, equivalent to 233-271 million MT, of which 88 million MT is poultry meat and over 183 million MT from bovine, ovine, and pig combined (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Boland et al. 2013; FAO 2015). Other regions will experience a slow but gradual increase in meat consumption. However, the volumes demanded in areas such as SSA, where the farming population will get older, and a majority will migrate to urban areas as the middle class expands, will be substantial (Klingholz 2020). The second report on the status of biodiversity warns that the changes in consumption patterns will potentially contribute to the loss of AnGR (FAO 2015). Therefore, deliberate policies on consumption need to be considered by governments in SSA.

Adaptation of indigenous chickens to uncontrolled environments

Indigenous animals have adapted well to the local environment where they have existed for thousands of years. Researchers have found that certain indigenous animal breeds have developed resistance to some livestock diseases due to adaptation and natural selection (FAO 2015). Most IC breeds have equally evolved in their environments for decades, evident by their resistance to poultry diseases such as ND and thriving in harsh environments characterized by poor-quality diets (Mapiye et al. 2008; Gizaw et al. 2010; Queenan et al. 2016). The ND is a devastating infectious disease endemic to parts of the world. Among the 75 avian breeds that show unspecified resistance to ND, 56 were chicken breeds (FAO 2015). Some of the IC breeds are more resistant to diseases. In Nigeria, Naked neck and Yoruba chickens resisted viral infections and eliminated the diseases resulting in recovery (Adeyemo et al. 2012; Bobbo et al. 2013).

Further, novel genes and the pathways signaling the resistance of avian influenza in poultry were analyzed by Wang et al. (2014). The traits of disease resistance, which are superior in IC compared to commercial breeds, may be essential in future chicken breeding programs (Mapiye et al. 2008). Gizaw et al. (2010) suggest that adaptive traits are equal to or more important than production traits in indigenous livestock production systems. The attribute to resist particular diseases in these breeds could be an exploitable opportunity in SSA, especially for farmers practicing free-range production systems.

Workable approaches to promote the conservation of indigenous chicken breeds

This section covers selected strategies to promote the sustainable use and conservation of IC-AnGR and improve rural livelihoods in SSA.

International guidelines on the conservation of animal genetic resources

The Food and Agriculture Organisation promotes five strategic areas for using and conserving indigenous AnGR. In the second report on biodiversity for agriculture, the international body provides guidelines on conserving AnGR (FAO 2015). These are: (i) enhancing knowledge on the characterization of local animals, (ii) developing sufficient institutional frameworks for AnGR management, enhancing linkages among livestock farmers and stakeholders concerning policies and programmes, and (iii) enhancing awareness through education, training, and research in significant areas of AnGR management, (iv) Enhancing breeding strategies and programs to harness available AnGR and match them with environments of production and requirements of societies and (v) increase diversification of conservation programs and possibly mix some approaches that use existing livestock breeds in the typical production environment and consider gene banks’ use to store genetic materials.

To implement the five areas, FAO requires individual countries to undertake various programs towards the stated strategies by forming AnGR conservation committees and submitting biodiversity status reports to the FAO Commission on Biodiversity (FAO 2015). Zambia is among the countries in SSA that have tried to implement biodiversity conservation programs based on FAO’s guidelines. The government implements these programs through research and extension services of the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock and other line ministries. Agendas such as farmer engagements and capacity building with support from donors on climate resilience have motivated the implementation of workable interventions. The Zambian government embarked on projects establishing livestock breeding centres nationwide and encouraging farmer-driven innovation, such as community-based interventions on IC. The multiplication of IC breeds at Mazabuka research station in the Southern province is ongoing (MFL 2019).

Through the African Union InterAfrican Bureau for African Animal Resources, Zambia formulated and launched the National Strategic Action Plan in 2018-2019 to develop sustainable use and conservation of indigenous livestock breeds, including IC-AnGR (MFL 2019). The country is also working on the plant biodiversity program through the Community Network, a non-governmental organization aligned with IFOAM to undertake a Gwembe Valley project that promotes on-farm sustainable use and conservation of selected crops (FAO 2019). This committee’s model could work equally for conservation projects targeting IC-AnGR.

Farmer mobilization and sustainable interventions

Although researchers agree on the socioeconomic roles of IC in SSA, there are fewer attempts to holistically find solutions to challenges faced in the IC sector, including the continued loss of IC-AnGR and low socioeconomic benefits among rural farmers (Dolberg 2007; FAO 2015). The Poultry Association of Zambia expressed similar concerns regarding obscure solutions for smallholders in Zambia’s poultry sector. The problems in the IC sector are confounded by unsustainable use of IC-AnGR, lack of management and disease control skills among farmers, and absence of value addition (Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; PAZ 2021). There are also barriers associated with a lack of information and un-uniform practices by SSF when keeping chickens (Mujyambere et al. 2022). Interventions to foster sustainable development of the IC sector and conservation of IC-AnGR are crucial to improving rural livelihoods in SSA (Rodríguez et al. 2011). Organizing farmers in formal groups would facilitate the flow and sharing of helpful information and offer farmers much-needed bargaining power in their agribusinesses (Melesse 2014). The involvement of rural farmers in community-based interventions can potentially empower the communities through decision-making and livestock business ownership (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015).

Researchers found that community-based interventions were more sustainable for conserving local AnGR because they are judicious, offer continuous improvements, and are more reliable as long-term interventions (Mueller et al. 2015). In a few decades, SSF working in isolation in SSA may face more constraints than those working collectively (Livingston et al. 2011; Melesse 2014). Farmers belonging to organized groups would improve production and productivity. These are achievable through good management skills, sustainable use and conservation of IC-AnGR, improved disease control, improved nutrition, and value addition among producers of IC (Livingston et al. 2011; Mueller et al. 2015; Queenan et al. 2016).

Contextualizing rural communities when designing interventions

Developing an innovation based on the local context is essential in promoting the conservation of IC-AnGR, enhancing socioeconomic gains, and increasing adoptions among SSF in the IC sector. There are guidelines and principles for designing community-based interventions, as highlighted by FAO (2015), Guèye (2000) and Mueller et al. (2015). A collective approach based on shared interests among researchers, communities, and stakeholders would create sustainable and workable strategies to conserve IC-AnGR in SSA. Governments in SSA need to design sustainable agriculture programs, increase investment in research and promote sound policies that encourage the participation of youths in agribusiness and food production (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Klingholz 2020). Any socioeconomic safety net program targeting rural communities needs a common ground with the rural community by understanding their culture, beliefs, and traditions (Bryman 2016; FAO 2015; Mueller et al. 2015). Researchers must promote the voices of the farmers before, during and after implementing such programs.

Creating market linkages

Mobilizing SSF into organized groups would make it easy to link farmers to formal markets for their chickens, eggs, and other products (Bagopi et al. 2014; Livingston et al. 2011; PAZ 2021). Further, farmers would have opportunities to negotiate for better policies affecting the IC sector, access an equitable market share and gain bargaining power (Melesse 2014; PAZ 2021). The existing local market niches such as Munada in rural Zambia, Saturday, and Tuesday in the urban areas can potentially increase incomes among producers of IC. These market linkages, mainly driven by consumer preference for IC meat and eggs, may motivate farmers to increase IC flock sizes, improve rural livelihoods and create opportunities for sustainable use and in situ conservation of IC-AnGR in SSA (FAO 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Valuable lessons from selected low-income countries

Generally, there are issues related to community-based interventions, including instances where particular challenges hindered the progress of these interventions. Mueller et al. (2015) highlighted a lack of trust in financial matters and technical problems that potentially affected the sustainability and continuation of particular interventions. For example, in Bolivia, where the objective of the intervention was to improve the fibre quality of wool from llamas, problems such as political and financial mistrust and lack of funds resulted in low sustainability and the eventual collapse of these innovations.

Promoting poultry development plans based on exotic breeds instead of IC would be less valuable to resource-poor farmers in SSA. The newly introduced exotic chicken breeds may not efficiently adapt to the uncontrolled environment in rural communities compared to IC breeds (FAO 2015). The IC sector faces most of these problems due to low literacy, lack of records, lack of information on poultry breeds and associated diseases, high feed prices and increased costs of production which hinder progress (Mtileni et al. 2016; Mueller et al. 2015; Mujyambere et al. 2022; Rodríguez et al. 2011; Sebho 2016).

Considering the local context, sustainable use of selected chicken breeds and promoting ownership of the formulated interventions are essential. The continuous engagement of researchers and stakeholders may encourage the development and sustainable conservation of IC-AnGR in SSA. Erosion of IC-AnGR is an urgent problem requiring immediate interventions and concerted efforts by all stakeholders, including rural communities in the region. The voices and views of the targeted rural communities and understanding the local situation are essential when designing interventions and promoting developmental programs for the IC sector (Patton 2010; Bryman 2016).

Analysis of various community-based interventions in low-income countries showed that research institutions and government support were crucial in achieving the established objectives (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Institutional support motivates farmers to open up to their challenges, work hard and feel a sense of ownership of the program.

When planning an intervention, stakeholders’ roles should be defined, and the possible value chains for IC should be understood clearly to create effective, sustainable, and beneficial innovations for the communities. The successes of researcher-community-stakeholder engagements in identifying problems and designing solutions highlight the determination of the researchers to reduce poverty in rural communities (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Selective adoption of workable approaches based on lessons learnt from other community-based interventions is necessary. Low-income countries would increase the use and conservation of native chicken breeds and improve rural livelihoods (FAO 2015; Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015). Adopting fundamentals and practical principles from guidelines of rural poultry farming, FAO, and community-based interventions justifies why projects targeting rural communities are well placed for the IC sector in SSA.