Strategies of promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Zambia: lessons from low-income countries

Food source

Rural communities in SSA have kept IC for the animal-based protein requirement by consuming chicken meat and eggs. The contribution to food needs for rural households from poultry is much more significant than other livestock types. For example, Guèye (1998, 2000) demonstrates how a simple farmer in Tanzania starts with one pullet and makes massive gains of close to 170 chickens - cocks, hens, pullets and cockerels, 440 to 1,100 eggs and 47 kg of chicken meat in five years, significantly improving the farmer’s food security and general livelihood. In addition, past production trends in the indigenous poultry sector of selected countries in SSA also demonstrated how valuable IC were as food source. For example, between 1984 and 1989, this sector produced 23,117 MT eggs (12%) in Nigeria, 3,172 MT eggs (26%) and 14,835 MT meat (69%) in Ivory Coast, 396 million eggs (36%) and 29,952 MT meat (26%) in Morocco, and over 46 million eggs (71%) and 8611 MT meat (72%) in Kenya (Guèye 1998, 2000). The production in the indigenous poultry sector is expected to have grown exponentially to date.

Consumption levels for village chickens and related products depend on the performance of farmers’ chickens. Communities that experience higher chicken mortalities exhibit low consumption levels for eggs and chickens meat, as eggs are solely for hatching and replacement stock (de Bruyn et al. 2018). In contrast, chickens are for sale to raise household incomes (de Bruyn et al. 2018). Global consumption trends for poultry products show that from 2004 to 2012 a 9% increment in chicken meat to 63 million MT, and hen eggs rose by 20% to 55.5 million MT was reported (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

The dynamics of consumption and use of IC in SSA are strongly associated with culture, socioeconomic status and surely by human population growth three decades from now (Guèye 1998, 2000; Klingholz 2020; Scherf and Pilling 2015). For example, in Tanzania, the SSF consumed less than a half of what they produced and sold the rest to rural areas, whereas in Zambia, the SSF consumed more than half of IC and only sold 20% to urban areas (Queenan et al. 2016).

Household income

Generally, IC have low input requirements and considered an easy way out of poverty because poor communities are more likely to own and farm. These quick and easy socioeconomic gains explain why these chickens are an entry point to wealth because anyone could start keeping them regardless of their socioeconomic status (Guèye 1998, 2000; Dolberg 2007). Indigenous poultry contributes to household incomes and assets that help improve livelihoods for SSF. Rural communities raise much-needed revenue for their household from chickens' sales to meet their daily household needs, including possible future investments. Guèye (1998, 2000) explained how SSF allocate incomes to various household needs. For example, when family A raises US$180 from selling 30 chickens, they would spend it as follows: US$72 for daily household needs, US$54 for buying clothes, invest $36 for business and use US$18 for purchasing replacement stock. The meticulous allocation of incomes from IC highlights their value to rural livelihoods. Farmers also use IC as a medium of exchange in form of barter system. For example, in the Gambia SSF exchanged five full-grown hens with an adult sheep and 25 hens with one adult cow (Guèye 1998, 2000). This trend also illustrated how owning IC was as good as owning any other livelihood assets among SSF.

Gender empowerment

Indigenous chickens are gender and socioeconomic equaliser supporting women and children in most parts of SSA (Kitalyi 1998; Guèye 2000; Morek et al. 2010; Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016). In SSA, the socioeconomic value of indigenous poultry in empowering women was evident, as over 70% of IC were owned and managed by women and children in the region, which enabled them possess livelihood assets (Guèye 2000; Dolberg 2007).

Some researchers viewed the subject of women empowerment through IC cautiously. For example, in certain societies in Tanzania, women and children could only manage the chickens, but the powers to decide on the marketing and use were still in men's hands (Queenan et al. 2016). Similar findings were reported in Mozambique, where prolonged wars significantly reduced the number of cattle and goats, resulting in increased interest and control of IC by men (Guèye 1998, 2000).

Social-cultural-religious uses

Some social-cultural and religious functions of IC among rural communities are usually a combination of incomes, consumption, gifts, medicinal and other uses (Scherf and Pilling 2015). In SSA, rural communities sacrificed IC during traditional ceremonies and rituals, shared cocks as gifts to their guests at cultural events, used the cocks for traditional medicines, including sexual stimulation for men, and hygiene through scavenging (Guèye 2000). White feathered chickens are vital for traditional medicines and sacrifices in Somalia, Cameroon and Zambia (Guèye 2000). Attaching value to the colour or appearance of indigenous livestock is also a pricing technique under traditional markets in parts of SSA (Mueller et al. 2015). Indigenous chickens are a bigger part of culture such that as people migrate to urban areas, they introduce their foods and animals (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Other uses

There are other uses of IC observed among SSF in SSA, including incubation of eggs, security, ornamental and hobbies. For example, in Ghana, close to 71% of guinea fowls and IC were kept for breeding, and most eggs were incubated (Guèye 2000). Farmers strategically selected desired males and females for continued production (Guèye 2000; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Similarly, eggs were incubated and hatched in Ethiopia for continued poultry production. Combined income and consumption use were reported in Zimbabwe, and in Nigeria, IC were also used for barter (Guèye 2000).

Poultry production systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

The method used to produce chickens has a significant bearing on productivity and quality. The three systems of production practised by farmers are the free-range system, where the chickens scavenge for feed, and no health care interventions are used, the semi-intensive system, in which the chickens are partially allowed to scavenge, coupled with feed supplementation, and finally, the intensive system, in which the chickens are entirely confined and fed throughout their growth period (Guèye 2000; Okeno et al. 2013). Production methods such as free-range and semi-intensive systems are perceived as beneficial to SSF, mainly due to negligible start-up costs, i.e. feeds and drugs (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). However, improving practices in areas such as disease control, shelter, marketing, feed supplementing and exploiting available feed resources may increase production efficiency and profitability among SSF in SSA (Goromela et al. 2006). Generally, SSF are at liberty to practice any three production systems depending on their constraints and socioeconomic status (Guèye 2000). The intensive production system used mainly by commercial broilers and layers producers is unsustainable for SSF because of the high cost of production, disease prevalence, and the highly oligopolistic market controlled by big breeders and producers (Bagopi et al. 2014).

The cost of feeds and other live inputs in the Zambian poultry industry generally increased in the past five years. In their weekly reports published for the first quarter for five years from 2016, the PAZ demonstrated that prices for solvent extracted soybean meal increased by 27.7% from US$23.50 per 50 kg, whereas a 45.3% increase for broiler starter from US$20.10 per 50 kg, 44% for broiler grower from US$19.30 per 50 kg, 45.9% increase from US$18.50 per 50 kg of finisher and a 49% change in price for layer mash from US$14.70 per 50 kg in the period between 2016 and 2021 during which the average exchange rate was US$1 to 12.95 Zambian kwacha (ZMW) (PAZ, 2021). Further, PAZ reported price increases for day-old chicks for improved free-range chickens, layers and broilers by 87.5%, 83.3% and 125% from US$0.80, US$0.60 and US$0.40 per bird, respectively. Other price changes included pullets, broiler, spent layers and IC increasing by 64.8%, 57%, 38.5% and 61.5% from US$8.90, US$3.00, US$2.60 and US$3.90 per bird, respectively (PAZ, 2021). The high costs of feed and other live inputs are the main reasons why SSF have failed to fully participate in commercial poultry production, as these costs constitute the highest proportion of production costs.

Although some SSF attempted to produce commercial chickens from 2005 onwards most SSF continued with indigenous poultry sector by keeping IC because of the low but stable performance under free-range system (Bagopi et al. 2014; PAZ 2021). Low costs, easiness of rearing and favourable prices of IC encouraged more SSF to consider the indigenous poultry sector as potentially sustainable and profitable (Okeno et al. 2013; Bett et al. 2013).

Common indigenous chicken breeds

Farmers in the indigenous poultry sector rear different breeds of IC. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO) highlighted various IC breeds reared by rural communities in Zambia. The most common IC breeds among SSF include the common Zambi, Naked neck, Dwarfs or short-legged, Frizzled feathered, Feathery legged, and Short-tailed, with live bodyweights (BW) ranging between 1.3 kg and 2.0 kg at over six months of age (MACO 2003; PAZ 2021). However, studies in Nigeria and Botswana suggest significant differences in live BW between female chickens (0.7-2.1 kg) and males (1.2-3.2 kg) (Guèye 2000).

Compared to broilers at six weeks, the growth period for IC is much longer. In the past few years, new breeds have also been introduced in Zambia’s indigenous poultry sector. Some of these improved free-range chicken breeds include the Boschvelds, Kruoillers, Black Australorps and Brahma (PAZ 2021). Although the improved free-range breeds are perceived to mature early and very productive under a free-range set-up, the high prices render them inaccessible to SSF (PAZ 2021). In general, the negligible costs involved in the production of IC promote the continued farmer involvement in the indigenous poultry sector. A high benefit-cost ratio in IC is common as any selling price is regarded as profit (Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016). However, numerous challenges outlined in the sections below pose as major threats to the sector.

Diseases and poor nutrition

The decision by SSF in Zambia to reconsider the rearing of IC is a viable socioeconomic strategy. However, poultry diseases and poor nutrition have been significant challenges in traditional poultry farming (Guèye 1998, 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). The argument is that the low input and scavenging production systems are less successful than the intensive system for broilers or layers (Rischkowsky and Pilling 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Uncontrolled poultry diseases and poor nutrition have made IC underperform compared to broilers in SSA. Research done in most low-income countries shows that most SSF depend on natural remedies for controlling poultry and other livestock diseases (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Guèye (2000) suggested that 79% of farmers used traditional herbs and plants to treat poultry diseases and that over 50% of mortalities happened under indigenous poultry sector by the first four weeks of chicken raising. In other parts of SSA, Queenan et al. (2016) reported that suspected Newcastle disease and fowlpox caused 40% to100% of mortalities in IC towards the end of the dry season.

In Zambia, the common diseases in the indigenous poultry scavenging system include Newcastle disease, fowl pox, fowl typhoid, infectious coryza, Gumboro, helminthiases, and ectoparasites, which have contributed to poor performance and high mortalities of IC experienced among SSF (Phiri et al. 2007; Simainga et al. 2011; Mubamba et al. 2018). In 2012, over 27% of SSF relied on traditional medication and less than 15% used veterinary drugs, resulting in 60% of the IC dying (Lubungu and Mofya 2012). In SSA, the main factor responsible for the loss of indigenous AnGR includes disease and poor disease management at 28%, the introduction of exotic animal breeds, uncontrolled cross-breeding, and climate change at 22%, 63% and 16%, respectively (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Despite the high disease prevalence observed in IC, there are beneficial adaptability and genetic gains through natural selection. The harsh environments in which indigenous livestock are reared leads to disease resistance and high adaptation to low-quality diets (Mapiye et al. 2008; Gizaw et al. 2010; Queenan et al. 2016). Among the 75 avian breeds that show unspecified resistance to New castle diseases a devastating and infectious disease endemic to certain areas, 56 were chicken breeds (Scherf and Pilling 2015). In Nigeria, Naked neck and Yoruba chickens exhibited resistance to viral infection and eliminated the disease if occurred (Adeyemo et al. 2012; Bobbo et al. 2013). Further, novels genes and the pathways signalling the resistance of avian influenza in poultry were analysed by (Wang et al. 2014). These traits, which are superior in IC than commercial breeds, may be essential in future chicken breeding programs (Mapiye et al. 2008). Gizaw et al. (2010) suggest that adaptive traits are equal or more important than production traits in indigenous livestock production systems.

Nutritional challenges

Other nutritional concerns are the poor poultry feeding regimes among SSF. There is limited supplementary feeding and a lower plane of nutrition under the scavenging system, leading to mortalities and reduced consistency in chicken (eggs) size and quality (Queenan et al. 2016). The majority of the IC are left to roam and scavenge for feed sources, such as insects, termites, vegetables, seeds, grains and earthworms and in rare situations, farmers supplement the chickens with kitchen waste, maize bran, leafy vegetables and other cheap feed sources (Mwalusanya et al. 2002; Goromela et al. 2006; Mapiye et al. 2008).

There are fluctuations in the availability of poultry scavenged feed resources between one harvest and the following year’ in rain-fed farming in SSA (de Bruyn et al. 2018). In Zambia, village chickens have access to high protein insects and earthworms in the rain season (December to April), and high energy feed sources during the harvest of field crops from May to August, whereas, in the hot and dry season, a severe shortage of nutritious feed sources leads to poor health, malnutrition and high mortalities (Queenan et al. 2016). Dry seasons require feed supplementing to mitigate adverse effects on IC (de Bruyn et al. 2018). In some parts of SSA, the breeding of black soldiers fly larvae and maggots as protein sources are being experimented with and may improve nutrition in the indigenous poultry sector, especially in the dry seasons (Kenis et al. 2014).

Inadequate policies in support of the indigenous poultry sector

A majority of SSA countries employ funding and infrastructure development plans favouring larger livestock species, predominantly run by commercial entities, and minimal attention is given to the indigenous poultry sector, despite SSF being part of the primary data source when designing policies on funding and infrastructure (Dolberg 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). These policies exacerbate the problems experienced in the indigenous poultry sector and SSF feel that political leaders and scientists do not adequately represent them (Dolberg 2007). For example, recently, a livestock infrastructure support project funded by African Development Bank focused on the construction of dairy and beef infrastructure, whereas the Second National Agriculture policy of 2016 to 2020 did not adequately cover how value addition and market participation for SSF in the indigenous poultry sector would be implemented in Zambia (MFL 2017).

Regulation on importation of poultry products

Low-income countries have witnessed economic growth, particularly from the private sector. The observed changes are motivated by inadequate regulations and policies that negatively affect ecosystems, AnGR, the poultry industry and markets (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Poultry products worth millions of dollars are imported overseas to SSA, negatively impacting the commercial and indigenous poultry sectors. In 2018, South Africa imported frozen poultry products of mixed parts valued at over US$65 million from different sources in Brazil (PAZ 2021). These products lacked traceability, posed a public health threat, and affected the local poultry sector. In Ghana, over US$60 million worth of poultry products were imported in 2018 (PAZ 2021). These importations prompted the local poultry association to engage the Ghanaian government to introduce quotas on poultry imports to protect local poultry farmers. To manage adverse effect of unfair trade, a ban on poultry imports was sanctioned in Namibia. In Zambia, the poultry association engaged the government to promote policies that protect and enhance SSF in the indigenous poultry sector (PAZ 2021). Some policy researchers recommend factoring in some livestock production policies and legislation on consumption to existing environmental management policies that could enrich strategies, enhance community benefits and reduce food wastage (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010).

Low access to formal and stable markets

In SSA, farmers in the indigenous poultry sector face barriers preventing them from accessing a formal market. These obstacles are associated with market standards and requirements, such as selling frozen whole or portions of chickens, packaging, labelling, and selling from standard outlets (Bagopi et al. 2014). Producers in indigenous poultry sector cannot compete with larger commercial entities because they neither own the required facilities nor the brands nor organised sales outlets (Simainga et al. 2011; Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). Further, smallholder farmers can only sell their chickens or eggs directly to established markets through groups and intermediaries who manage most market channels (Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). This way is also full of obstacles.

In Zambia, SSF sell chickens through informal markets, such as the roadside, village markets, backyard, and direct to consumers (Queenan et al. 2016; Mubamba et al. 2018; PAZ 2021). Recently, informal markets have transformed into essential selling points making it possible for farmers to organise and meet consumers’ demands on quality and quantity. For example, the concepts of “Tuesday and Saturday markets” have become popular in some parts of the country (PAZ 2021). In the Northern part of Zambia, this traditional market is also called Munada, where traders agree on the date and place for the market day.

Generally, the low access to reliable markets affects the sales and consumption dynamics of IC among SSF. For example, in Tanzania, the SSF sold twice more village chickens and eggs to rural areas than they consumed and sold at US$3.72 per live chicken, whereas in Zambia, producers of IC consumed more than half of their chickens and only sold 20% to urban areas at an average price of US$3.37 per bird (Queenan et al. 2016). The variation in selling points and consumption levels shows how undefined and informal markets for IC are in SSA.

Poor housing facilities

Another constraint is the lack of reliable poultry housing facilities for IC under scavenging systems. Some IC are kept in undeveloped poultry houses at night to secure them from predators. However, the chickens are left to hide in trees, making them vulnerable to predators, such as cats and dogs (Guèye 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). Consequently, theft, predation and environmental hazards are common and significantly contribute to losses IC observed in the indigenous poultry sector. For example, a survey conducted in Western Zambia showed that 93% and 84% of the households interviewed attributed the losses to predation and thefts, respectively (Simainga et al. 2011).

Increased consumer demand for indigenous chickens

Despite the barriers and challenges experienced by SSF, IC are essential to both rural communities and consumers. In the past few years, the demand and preference for IC have steadily grown among consumers (Bett et al. 2013). The increased preference for IC results from the perceived good taste, fine texture, and health benefits of consumers, with some preferring male chickens for the large size and hens for their tenderness (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). Although in South Africa, studies by Dyubele et al. (2010) found that consumers prefered broilers to IC due to tenderness and other attributes. Generally, the increased demand has led to a substantial rise in prices of IC over commercial chicken meat, potentially creating an opportunity for SSF (Guèye, 2000; Ajayi 2010; Queenan et al. 2016; PAZ 2021). For example, studies showed that IC meat was sold at 27% higher than commercial broilers in Senegal, while in Nigeria, the cocks were sold at prices over 300% more than the hens or broilers (Guèye 2000).

Similar trends have been observed in Zambia, where the IC sell at nearly twice the price of broilers (PAZ 2021). The Poultry Association of Zambia reported that, in 2016, live IC were sold at US$4.0, which was 33% higher than broilers, while in the first quarter of 2021, IC were priced at US$6.40, which was 73% more than broiler chickens. During the period under review, on average, US$1was equivalent to ZMW12.95. This trend is consistent with some studies, where IC prices were higher, particularly when sold in formal markets or places familiar to consumers (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). Consumers want proof that what they are buying is indeed IC.

Population growth and food demand

Consumer demand for healthy products, including IC meat and eggs, will increase with human population growth in SSA. The United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organisation’s revised projections show that from 2005 to 2050, the global human population will grow up to 9.2 and 9.8 billion, of which over 46% of growth will be in SSA, and a 60% increase in food demand is expected (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Zambia’s population will reach 39 million during the same period, contributing to increased food requirements (Klingholz, 2020). Annual population growth of 1.9% in SSA with per capita food consumption of less than 2500 (Kcal/person/day) and annual undernutrition levels 20% higher than other regions predicted for the period between 2005 and 2050 requires increased food supply in SSA (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Food consumption patterns

The population changes will significantly raise the food demand and consumption pattern of animal-based protein, which accounts for 40% of total protein consumed by humans (Lebbie and Ramsay 1999; Boland et al. 2013; Mueller et al. 2015). Some scholars also predict that the emergence of the middle-class will highly influence an increase in meat consumption in low-income countries, which will require applying technology and innovation to meet the demand during 'The Livestock Revolution' (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). Globally, from 2000 to 2050, researchers predict an 82% increase in meat consumption, equivalent to 233-271 million MT, of which 88 million MT is poultry and over 183 million MT from bovine, ovine and pig meat combined (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Boland et al. 2013; Scherf and Pilling 2015). In other regions, meat consumption will increase slowly. However, the volumes demanded will be substantial, especially in SSA, where the farming population will get older, and a majority will migrate to the urban areas as the middle class expands (Klingholz 2020).

Farmer mobilisation and sustainable interventions

Despite researchers sharing a consensus on the socioeconomic role of IC in SSA, there are fewer attempts to holistically find solutions to challenges faced in the indigenous poultry sector, including the continued loss of IC-AnGR and low socioeconomic gains by SSF (Dolberg 2007). The Poultry Association of Zambia expressed similar concerns regarding obscure solutions for SSF in Zambia's poultry sector. Generally, the problems faced by the indigenous poultry sector are also associated with unsustainable use of IC-AnGR, lack of skills in animal management and disease control, and absence of value addition among others (Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; PAZ 2021). Interventions that promote the sustainable development of the indigenous poultry sector need to be initiated to secure IC breeds and enhance rural livelihoods in Zambia.

Studies have demonstrated that researcher-community-stakeholder engagements could significantly improve the management of indigenous livestock, increase incomes and reduce poverty in low-income countries (Mueller et al. 2015). In their analysis of various community-based breeding programs (CBBP), Mueller et al. (2015) and Scherf and Pilling (2015) showed a positive impact of the researcher-community-stakeholder engagements on AnGR and livelihood for SSF. The involvement of rural communities in CBBP empowered SSF through the decision making and livestock business ownership. Most importantly, researchers found that CBBP was a sustainable option for conserving local AnGR through sustainable use and continuous improvements and also a more reliable long-term approache suitable for rural communities, particularly in low-income countries (Mueller et al. 2015).

To promote the conservation of IC-AnGR and enhance the socioeconomic gains for SSF involved in the indigenous poultry sector, developing an innovation based on the local context is essential. The community-based intervention aimed at developing the sector through guidelines and principles of rural farming by Guèye (2000), conservation of AnGR by Scherf and Pilling (2015), and the CBBP promoted by Mueller et al. (2015), would potentially help in identifying challenges and designing sustainable solutions within the Zambian local context. A collective approach based on shared interests among researchers, communities and stakeholders would create sustainable and adoptable strategies through a community-based indigenous poultry development program (CBIPDP).

To mitigate the future challenges to food and nutritional security, governments need to design sustainable agriculture programs, increase investment in research and promote sound policies that encourage the participation of youths in agribusiness and food production (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Klingholz 2020). In a few decades, SSF working in isolation in SSA may face more constraints as opposed to those working collectively (Livingston et al. 2011). Farmer belonging to organised groups would improve production and productivity, achievable through good management, sustainable use and conservation of indigenous AnGR, improved disease control, improved nutrition and value addition (Livingston et al. 2011; Mueller et al. 2015; Queenan et al. 2016). Therefore, mobilising SSF into organised groups will significantly promote innovative engagements of stakeholders and result in productivity and sustainability in the indigenous poultry sector in Zambia. The following section outlines examples of effective interventions emanating from engagements of prominent stakeholders in selected low-income countries.

Examples of community-based interventions

There are practical examples of Stakeholders’ engagements and their impact on SSF in low-income countries, as demonstrated by Rodríguez et al. (2011) and Mueller et al. (2015). These strategies resulted in socioeconomic gains among rural communities that adopted various interventions in low-income countries. Mueller et al. (2015) outlined the process required when establishing CBBP and gave examples of such approaches in developing countries that worked and those that faced challenges. These breeding plans had common features, including initiators being either the community or government research institutions, well-formulated breeding objectives based on indigenous or local breeds, the existence of institutional support (technical or financial) and each of the plans recorded a change (Rodríguez et al. 2011; Mueller et al. 2015).

Outcomes of CBBP

The analysis of various community-based interventions in low-income countries showed that support from research institutions and the government was crucial in achieving the set objectives. Further, the farmers worked together to identify and describe the problems to stakeholders. The impacts of community-based interventions in low-income countries were empirically reported. For example, in Vietnam, pork farmers achieved between 40% and 100% increment in pork prices resulting from SSF working together with government institutions in identifying challenges and finding solutions, in Kenya, SSF experienced fast growth in the goat population, and over 300% increase in goat milk yields from 0.25 litres per day after community-based solutions, whereas in Ethiopia, positive testimonies and sharing of knowledge among SSF led to widespread adoption of sheep breeding strategies among rural communities (Mueller et al. 2015). Similar benefits of stakeholders-based interventions were observed in Benin where government and the community engaged in vaccinating IC and broilers against Newcastle disease and using improved poultry management resulted in 58% more profits from IC than broilers (Rodríguez et al. 2011). Like many community-based programs, the researcher-community-stakeholders interventions are not spared from challenges. For example, in Bolivia, where the objective of the community-based intervention was to improve the fibre quality of wool from llamas, politics, financial mistrust, and funding challenges resultedin low stainability (Mueller et al. 2015).

Challenges of community-based interventions and way forward

Generally, there are issues related to community-based interventions. Mueller highlighted trust, financial and technical problems that potentially affected the sustainability and continuation of CBBP in some countries. These are essential lessons worth considering when designing CBIPDP through engagement of the main stakeholders in the indigenous poultry sector in Zambia. Promoting the voices and views of the target rural communities and understanding the local context are essential for designing sustainable community-based interventions (Patton 2010; Bryman 2016). For example, promoting poultry development plans based on exotic breeds instead of indigenous species is less valuable to SSF due to the lack of adaptation of new breeds to the local environment (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Some challenges associated with exotic breeds include low literacy, lack of records, diseases and high prices of breeds and costs of production for SSF (Mueller et al. 2015; Mtileni et al. 2016; Sebho 2016). Therefore, considering the local context, IC breeds, and promoting ownership of the intervention formulated through engagements of stakeholders is crucial to the sustainable conservation of IC-AnGR.

Selective adoption of workable approaches based on lessons learnt from IC-AnGR conservation and use would increase the chances of designing a sustainable community-based innovation targeting SSF in the indigenous poultry sector (Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; Scherf and Pilling 2015). For example, FAO outlined priority areas and interventions to promote the sustainable management and conservation of indigenous AnGR and enhance livelihoods for rural communities as a global action plan.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations promoted five strategic areas on using and conserving indigenous AnGR (Scherf and Pilling 2015). These are: (a) enhancing knowledge on the characterisation of local animals, (b) developing sufficient institutional frameworks for AnGR management, enhanced linkages among livestock farmers and stakeholders concerning policies and programmes, (c) Enhance awareness through education, training and research in significant areas of AnGR management, (d) Enhancing breeding strategies and programs to harness available genetic resources and match them with environments of production and requirements of societies and (e) Increase diversification of conservation programs and possibly mix some approaches that use existing livestock breeds in the typical production environment and consider gene banks' use to store genetic materials. To implement the five areas, FAO required individual countries to undertake various programs toward the stated strategies through formation of AnGR conservation committee and submit biodiversity status reports to the FAO Commission on biodiversity (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Zambia has implemented programs to conserve indigenous AnGR and promote sustainability among SSF, some of which partially fulfilled the five strategic areas of FAO. The programs planned and implemented through research and extension include; ongoing farmer engagements and capacity building with donor support on climate-resilient projects, establishing livestock breeding centres across the country, promoting farmer-driven innovation such as community-based programs on indigenous livestock, making available breeding technologies such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer among SSF through the National Artificial Insemination Services Centre in Mazabuka in Southern province of Zambia (MFL 2019). Through the African Union InterAfrican Bureau for African Animal Resources (AU-IBAR), Zambia formulated and launched the National Strategic Action Plan in 2018-2019 (MFL 2019). Specifically, the action plan was developed to promote sustainable utilisation and conservation of indigenous AnGR in Zambia.

Therefore, a sustainable indigenous poultry sector development plan based on understanding the production systems used by SSF, clearly defined roles of stakeholders and the importance of IC has the potential to strengthen sustainable conservation of IC and enhance rural livelihoods. The successes of researcher-community-stakeholders engagements in identifying problems and designing solutions indicates that adapting general practical principles from guidelines from the rural poultry farming, FAO, and CBBP justifies why CBIPDP is a well-placed project for Zambia’s indigenous poultry sector.

Recommendations

Future studies should investigate market needs and consumption patterns for indigenous chickens among consumers in Zambia. Further, an assessment of the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the indigenous poultry sector is essential in understanding the resilience and sustainability of rural communities.