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Revised

Strategies for promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from low-income countries

[version 3; peer review: 1 not approved]
Previously titled: Strategies of promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Zambia: lessons from low-income countries
PUBLISHED 08 Jul 2022
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This article is included in the Agriculture, Food and Nutrition gateway.

Abstract

This review explores innovative and sustainable strategies for the utilization and conservation of indigenous chickens (IC) (Gallus domesticus) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), drawing lessons from selected low-income countries. Small-scale farmers (SSF) have kept IC for hundreds of years to meet their households' nutritional needs, incomes, and social-cultural and religious uses. The commitment exhibited by SSF to keeping IC has made them the significant custodians of essential animal genetic resources AnGR in most low-income countries. Between 1991 and 2012, Zambia's private breeders invested over US$95 million in the commercial poultry sector, resulting in over a 100% increase in the annual production of day-old chicks to 65 million. However, high production costs and low market access hindered rural farmers' full participation, hence their continued dependence on IC breeds. The erosion of AnGR poses the biggest threat to IC in SSA. The Food and Agriculture Organisation, an international body of the United Nations, highlighted that over 3.5% of chicken breeds were extinct, 33% were at risk, and nearly 67% were of unknown status. Poultry diseases, lack of sustainable conservation strategies and poor use have significantly contributed to these losses. In 2012, 60% of IC were reportedly diseased in parts of SSA. The continued loss of IC-AnGR may negatively impact rural livelihoods, and future research and breeding programs in poultry may suffer. This paper reviews IC sector in parts of SSA, the socioeconomic, cultural and religious roles of IC and lessons on researcher-community-stakeholder strategies from selected low-income countries. The paper draws a conclusion and outlines some recommendations for future research.

Keywords

Animal genetic resource, biodiversity, conservation, rural-community, small-scale farmer, poultry-sector

Revised Amendments from Version 2

Following the reviewer’s suggestions and guidance, we made the following changes to version 2 to improve the structure, content, and general organisation of the article:
The title was revised and now reads as shown in version 3 to include the wider scope of the value of indigenous chickens to rural communities in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The text of the abstract was also revised to relate to the organisation and content of the article.
The term indigenous poultry sector was replaced with the indigenous chicken sector
The old statistics on the chicken meat and egg tonnages from indigenous chicken were replaced with more recent ones.
In the introduction and part of the main body, some paragraphs were moved from one position to the other to improve the sequence and flow of the information in the article.
We also added some information and references on community-based interventions.
The community-based breeding program was treated as a community-based intervention and thus examples that related to the interventions included other indigenous livestock just to emphasise the point that engaging stakeholders when designing interventions is crucial for adoption and sustainability
Some sub-titles were revised in certain parts of the article to reflect the content.
We revised the conclusion to make it comprehensive to our readers and consistent with our findings.

See the authors' detailed response to the review by Yadong Tian and Wenting Li
See the authors' detailed response to the review by Titus Jairus Zindove

Introduction

Many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) experience varying and distinct agroecological conditions. The region’s diverse climate affects individual countries in a variety of ways. In this scenario, Zambia is not exceptional. The country has a total surface area of 752,618 square kilometres (75.3 million hectares), divided into three distinct agroecological regions (I, II and III), each with unique agricultural challenges concerning annual rainfall, vegetation, annual temperatures, soil type and water resources. Agroecological regions I and II occupy 54% of the total national land, mainly in Zambia’s Southern, Western, Central and Eastern areas (Phiri and Mukelabai 2010). Region I and II, on average, receive between 800 mm and 1000 mm annual rainfall. In contrast, region III, primarily in the Northern and North-western, also classified as a high rainfall zone, covers 46% of the national area and receives more than 1000 mm annual rainfall. Despite this climate variability across the country, and over 40% of fresh groundwater in Southern Africa is in Zambia, 90% of small-scale farmers (SSF) practise rain-fed agriculture (Hamududu and Ngoma 2019).

Generally, most problems experienced in agriculture are highly associated with climate variations, which may worsen by the next century. Some studies predict that by the end of the twenty-first century, there will be a three degrees Celsius increase in global temperature, 0.6% reduction in annual rainfall, and a 13% reduction in available groundwater due to climate change (Pelletier and Tyedmers 2010; Hamududu and Ngoma 2019). The drastic climate variation will have more adverse effects in low-income countries, especially in SSA. Therefore, small livestock, such as goats, sheep and indigenous chickens (IC) (Gallus domesticus), generally considered low input enterprises, will be essential and expected to contribute substantially to improving livelihoods among rural communities (Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016). Very few SSF have produced broilers and layers in Zambia. Most of them have continued to keep IC because of the low but stable performance under the free-range system (Bagopi et al. 2014; PAZ 2021). Low costs, easiness of rearing and favourable prices of IC encouraged more SSF to consider producing these chickens because they are sustainable and profitable (Okeno et al. 2013; Bett et al. 2013).

Guèye (1998, 2000) highlighted that IC, which comprises the majority of rural poultry farming in SSA, have been kept by SSF for hundreds of years to meet their food and nutritional security, household incomes, poverty reduction and empowerment of women. Some researchers have also documented the significant contribution of IC to farmers’ adaptation and resilience to climate variations more than larger livestock species such as cattle, which demand more grazing land and water resources (Yayneshet and Treydte 2015). Studies conducted in various parts of SSA have identified easiness and negligible start-up capital for IC, especially under scavenging or free-range production systems, which are common among rural farmers as motivating factors (Okeno et al. 2013). Some researchers consider IC an entry point to poverty reduction, as farmers could start with one chicken (Bett et al. 2013; Dolberg 2007; Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016).

Despite these critical roles of IC, rural communities have not achieved significant socioeconomic gains from producing IC. Poultry diseases, poor nutrition, unsupportive policies and low access to markets are partly the causes of the current status of the indigenous chicken sector (IC sector) in SSA. One of the strategies to mitigate the challenges in the sector is to exploit sustainable interventions generated through researcher-community-stakeholder engagements. This approach enables researchers to share information with the rural communities and stakeholders on the benefits of the desired community-based interventions (Rodríguez et al. 2011). Several innovations targeting rural communities aimed at promoting sustainable utilization and conservation of AnGR, identifying challenges and exploring opportunities have resulted in increased adoption, enhanced adaptation and socioeconomic gains among rural communities (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011).

This paper highlights the roles of IC, the main challenges faced by small-scale producers, available opportunities for growth and feasible strategies to mitigate the loss of IC- AnGR and its impact on rural communities in SSA. Further, examples of researcher-community-stakeholder engagements based on IC and other indigenous livestock are highlighted to illustrate the point that community-based interventions are effective tools in promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous AnGR and improving rural livehoods in low-income countries. In this paper, the term indigenous chicken refers to chicken breeds, also known as native chickens belonging to a location where they have evolved for thousands of years (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Commodity prices are reported in the United States dollars (US$).

Poultry industry in Sub-Saharan Africa

Agriculture is the main solution to global challenges such as increased cost of living, population growth, poverty, and inequality. Most studies have demonstrated that agriculture provides employment, food and nutritional security, livelihood assets, and gender equality among rural communities, potentially countering the highlighted concerns (Guèye 2000; Dolberg 2007; Boland et al. 2013). Globally, agriculture contributes 40% to Gross Domestic Product and employs over 1.3 billion inhabitants (Boland et al. 2013). A majority of SSF in low-income countries consider agriculture as a full-time occupation. For many generations, rural farmers in SSA have grown various crops and kept livestock, including IC, for their livelihoods (Guèye 1998, 2000). Therefore, as we head towards the year 2050, agriculture is crucial for job creation and meeting the food and nutritional demands in SSA (Klingholz 2020).

The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), an international body of the United Nations classifies chickens in the top five crucial animal species, with the other four being cattle, sheep, goats and pigs (Scherf and Pilling 2015). This international body has made it mandatory for countries to prioritize submitting biodiversity status reports for these farm animal species. Among the chicken species, IC have the highest population and importance for SSF in SSA because most rural farmers produce these chickens at low land, capital and labour requirements (Bett et al., 2013). Although rural farmers practise low input production systems, there are variations in conditions and environments across the region and within countries based on their socioeconomic status (Guèye 1998, 2000). Thus far, studies have revealed IC’s socioeconomic functions for rural communities in most low-income countries (Dolberg 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Past and present research agrees on IC’s socioeconomic and socio-cultural-religious value to rural communities in SSA (Lebbie and Ramsay 1999; Guèye 2000; Aklilu et al. 2007; Duguma 2009; Queenan et al. 2016; Alders and Pym 2019). Rural farmers keep over 80% of IC in the region (Guèye 1998, 2000; Queenan et al. 2016).

Guèye (1998, 2000) highlighted the value and relevance of the IC sector in SSA as far back as 1994, when over 1.1 billion IC contributed over 1.7 million metric tonnes (MT) of eggs and 2.1 million MT of chicken meat. Recently, production trends of the IC sector in the region have significantly changed. The proportion of IC compared to the national poultry population from 1989 to 2018 for selected countries in SSA have been reported widely (FAOstat, 2022; Guèye, 1998, 2000; Scherf and Pilling 2015; Vernooij et al., 2018). For example, in Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia, the population for IC comprised up to 82% of the national flock (FAOstat, 2022; Vernooij et al., 2018).

Despite the high percent of IC in the national flock, the IC sector has exhibited varying growth in the past decades compared to commercial poultry sector across the region. The difference in the growth rate between the two poultry sectors is highly associated with the production costs, shortages of feeds and outbreaks of poultry diseases experienced in SSA, mostly affecting SSF (Guèye 2000; PAZ 2021; Vernooij et al. 2018). Zimbabwe’s case is different, where over 65% contraction in the poultry industry was reported between 2007 and 2018 (FAOstat 2022). The change may be associated with the country’s political and economic difficulties during the Zimbabwean government’s 2000-2001 land reforms.

In Zambia, the socioeconomic contributions of agriculture are equally evident, especially among rural communities. According to the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MFL), nearly 18% of Zambia’s Gross Domestic Product is from agriculture, supporting over 12 million people and absorbing over 67% of the labour force (MFL 2017). Poultry is also a significant component of agriculture in the country. A study conducted in 2012 found that over one million smallholder farmers out of 1,418,000 agricultural households surveyed raised over 12 million IC in Zambia (Lubungu and Mofya 2012). The study also found that half of the reported chickens were owned by SSF in Eastern, Southern and Central provinces, whereas the other half belonged to SSF in the seven regions. The MFL estimated a 20% annual growth in the Zambian IC sector between 2012 and 2017 (MFL 2019).

In the 1990s, the Zambian government made economic reforms in the agriculture sector through a liberalised market system to promote private sector participation in delivering goods and services (Rakner 2003; Bonaglia 2009). During this period, privatization of most government-run entities occurred. In 2005, a ten-year plan explicitly for the poultry sub-sector was established (Bagopi et al. 2014). The plan aimed to increase efficiency and productivity in the commercial poultry sector.

The agriculture reforms and poultry sector plan led to introduction of new chicken genetics, improved nutrition, enhanced health services and farming practices in the Zambian poultry industry. Within six years, integrated and standalone breeders, such as Zambeef-Rainball, Pioneer-Bokomo, Tiger-Ross, Country bird, Panda and Hybrid, were established (Bagopi et al. 2014; PAZ 2021). Further, a US$95 million investment by Zambeef-Rainball breeders triggered unprecedented growth in the poultry sector. Between 2007 and 2012, the production of day-old chicks rose by over 100%, from 27 to 65 million per annum, and over 50,000 jobs were created (Bagopi et al. 2014). In contrast, such changes occurred much earlier in highly industrialised nations, as observed in policies that govern the poultry industry and gains made by consumers in those countries (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). Generally, changes in Zambia’s poultry sector encouraged the involvement of SSF in the commercial poultry sector, defying their conservative nature. However, the participation of SSF was temporal due to the high production costs and anti-competition tendencies they faced in the commercial poultry sector (Bagopi et al. 2014; Mueller et al. 2015).

The method used to produce chickens significantly affects productivity and quality. Farmers practise three main chicken production systems. The free-range system, where the chickens scavenge for feed and without health care interventions; the semi-intensive, in which the chickens are partially allowed to scavenge, coupled with feed supplementation; and the intensive, in which the chickens are entirely confined and fed throughout their growth period (Guèye 2000; Okeno et al. 2013). Free-range and semi-intensive systems are considered beneficial to SSF, mainly due to negligible start-up costs, i.e. feeds and drugs (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). However, improving practices on disease control, shelter, marketing, feed supplementing and exploiting available feed resources may increase production, efficiency and profitability among SSF in SSA (Goromela et al. 2006). Generally, SSF are at liberty to practice any of the three production systems depending on their constraints and socioeconomic status (Guèye 2000). The intensive production system used mainly by commercial chicken farmers is unsustainable for SSF because of the high cost of production, disease prevalence, and the highly oligopolistic market controlled by big breeders and producers (Bagopi et al. 2014).

Common indigenous chicken breeds

There are different breeds of IC reared by rural farmers in SSA. The Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO) highlighted various IC breeds that rural communities in Zambia reared. These breeds include the common Zambi, Naked neck, Dwarfs or short-legged, Frizzled feathered, Feathery legged, and Short-tailed, with live bodyweights (BW) range of 1.3-2.0 kg at over 180 days of age (MACO 2003; PAZ 2021). Studies in Nigeria and Botswana suggest significant differences in live BW between female (0.7-2.1 kg) and male (1.2-3.2 kg) IC (Guèye 2000). In Benin, some common IC breeds include Koklogbo, Komaloe, Adjagble, Win, and Dingbannon, which are reared by rural communities (Rodríguez et al. 2011). Their fieldwork compared production parameters between IC and exotic breeds and assessed the impact of the NCD vaccination program on the profitability of the two ventures. They reported that IC laid ten eggs per cycle and achieved 2.4 cycles per year, 70% hatchability, 150 days of the growth period at 1.1 kg live BW and 120 days for brooding and maintenance. In contrast, exotic chickens had slightly higher production indicators at 12 eggs per cycle, three cycles per year, 80% hatching rate and a somewhat shorter period of brooding and maintenance at 89 days (Rodríguez et al. 2011). They concluded that IC were more profitable for poor resource farmers compared to exotic. Compared to broilers at 42 days, the growth period for IC is much longer. Recently, Zambia’s poultry sector saw the introduction of new chicken breeds. Some improved free-range chicken breeds include the Boschvelds, Kruoillers, Black Australorps and Brahma (PAZ 2021). Although the improved free-range breeds are perceived to mature early and very productive under a free-range set-up, the high prices for day old chicks and susceptibility to diseases render them inaccessible to SSF (PAZ 2021). In general, the negligible costs of producing the common IC encourages farmers’ continued commitment in the IC sector. A high benefit-cost ratio in IC is standard as any selling price translates to profit (Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016).

Uses of indigenous chickens in Sub-Saharan Africa

Rural communities in SSA attach socioeconomic, cultural, and religious values to IC. The communities obtain food security, household income, breeding stock, and social-cultural and religious uses discussed in this section.

Food source

The contribution of IC to food needs for rural households is much more significant than other types of indigenous livestock. Rural families in SSA have met the much-needed animal-based protein by consuming chicken meat and eggs. For example, Guèye (1998, 2000) demonstrated how a farmer who started with one pullet in Tanzania gained nearly 170 chickens, 1,100 eggs and 47 kg of chicken meat in five years. There was a significant change in the farmers’ food and nutritional security and livelihood. Based on production trends between 2009 and 2017, the IC sector has significantly contributed to the poultry meat and egg supply in most countries in SSA (FAOstat 2022; Vernooij et al. 2018). In 2016, IC comprised 82.4% of Kenya’s 40.4 million chickens (total), and the sector produced over 1,530 million eggs annually. In contrast, in Uganda, 26.6 million (66.5%) were IC, the poultry sector produced 856 million eggs, and Tanzania had 37 million IC (55.2%), producing over 1,780 million eggs annually (Vernooij et al. 2018). Growth trends for IC were also reported between 2010 and 2020 in Benin at 37.6% from 16.5 million, Nigeria dropped by 13.7% from 192 million IC, and Zambia expanded by 17.4% from 35 million. In contrast, the Gambia showed significant growth of 64.7% from 0.85 million native chickens (FAOstat 2022).

The household consumption levels for IC and related products depend on the productivity and performance of farmers’ chickens. Communities that experience higher chicken mortalities exhibit low consumption levels for IC meat and eggs, and eggs are solely for hatching and replacement stock, and in contrast, chickens are typically sold to raise household incomes (de Bruyn et al. 2018). Global consumption trends for poultry products show that from 2004 to 2012, a 9% increment in chicken meat to 63 million MT and a 20% rise in egg consumption to 55.5 million MT was reported (Scherf and Pilling 2015). The number of eggs consumed annually per person varies from country to country. From 2009 to 2017, Kenya, Tanzania and Nigeria experienced reductions at (0.6-0.5), 1.6-1.5) and (1.6-0.9) eggs/person/year, respectively. The egg consumption rates in SSA were significantly low at (2.1) eggs/person/year compared to over 13 eggs, the global average (Vernooij et al. 2018).

The consumption of IC meat and eggs is highly dependent on the socioeconomic status of the community and, in future, the growth in human populations (Guèye 1998, 2000; Klingholz 2020; Scherf and Pilling 2015). For example, in Tanzania, the SSF consumed less than half of what they produced and sold the rest to rural areas, whereas in Zambia, the SSF consumed more than half of IC and only sold 20% to urban areas (Queenan et al. 2016). Further, communities that are assisted with sustainable interventions to improve the productivity of IC also exhibit changes in consumption patterns for chicken meat and eggs (Dumas et al. 2017).

Household income

Indigenous chicken enterprises under the free range system are considered low-input because of the low capital requirements, creating an easy way out of poverty for most resource poor communities in SSA (Guèye 1998, 2000; Dolberg 2007). Indigenous chickens significantly contribute to household incomes and livelihood assets for rural communities in the region. Farmers acquire finances to meet their daily needs and possible future investments (Dumas et al. 2017; Guèye 2000). For example, when family A raises US$180 from selling 30 chickens, they allocate US$72 for daily household needs, US$54 for buying clothes, US$36 for business and US$18 for purchasing replacement stock (Guèye 2000). Some farmers invest their incomes and purchase food sources in times of hunger (Dumas et al. 2017). The meticulous allocation of incomes from IC highlights how valuable the chickens are for rural livelihoods. Farmers could also use IC as a medium of exchange. For example, in the Gambia, SSF exchanged five full-grown hens with an adult sheep and 25 hens with one adult cow (Guèye 1998, 2000). This trend also illustrated how owning IC was as good as owning other livelihood assets among rural households.

Gender empowerment

Indigenous chickens are also considered socioeconomic and gender equalisers, favouring women and children in most parts of SSA (Kitalyi 1998; Guèye 2000; Moreki et al. 2010; Simainga et al. 2011; Queenan et al. 2016). Over 70% of IC in SSA are owned and managed by women and children, creating an enabling environment for them to access various livelihood assets (Guèye 2000; Dolberg 2007). However, some researchers are sceptical and cautious about the contribution of IC to gender equality in rural communities. For example, in certain societies in Tanzania, women and children could only manage the chickens, but the powers to decide on the marketing and use were still in men’s hands (Queenan et al. 2016). Similar findings in Mozambique highlighted that prolonged wars significantly reduced the number of cattle and goats, resulting in increased interest and control of IC by men (Guèye 1998, 2000).

Social-cultural-religious uses

Some social-cultural and religious functions of IC among rural communities are usually a combination of incomes, consumption, gifts, medicinal and other uses (Scherf and Pilling 2015). In SSA, rural communities sacrifice IC during traditional ceremonies and rituals, share cocks as gifts to their guests at cultural events such as weddings, and use the cocks for traditional medicines, including sexual stimulation for men and general hygiene through scavenging (Guèye 2000). White feathered chickens are vital for traditional medicines and sacrifices in Somalia, Cameroon and Zambia (Guèye 2000). Attaching value to the colour or appearance of indigenous livestock is also a pricing technique under traditional markets in parts of SSA (Mueller et al. 2015). Indigenous chickens are a more significant part of the culture, such that as people migrate to urban areas, they introduce their foods and IC breeds to their new settlements (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Other uses

Indigenous chickens are considered a significant component in community-based breeding programs by sharing and incubating fertilised eggs within the community (Dumas et al. 2017; Guèye 2000). Farmers also use IC as security, ornamental and for hobbies. For example, nearly 71% of Ghana’s IC were for breeding purposes (Guèye 2000). Farmers strategically selected desired males and females for continued production (Guèye 2000; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Similarly, eggs were incubated and hatched in Ethiopia for continued chicken production in rural communities. Combined income and consumption use were reported in Zimbabwe, whereas in Nigeria, farmers used IC for Barter (Guèye 2000).

Threats to the indigenous chicken sector in Sub-Saharan Africa

Most rural farmers keeping IC face several challenges, including loss of indigenous chicken animal genetic resources (IC-AnGR), poultry diseases, poor policies, unstable markets and poor infrastructure. This section discusses these challenges and their impact to IC sector in SSA.

Loss of indigenous chicken animal genetic resources

The continued erosion of IC-AnGR and the low socioeconomic gains by rural farmers producing IC are potential threats to rural livelihoods in SSA. These chickens are highly adapted to conditions, able to use scavenged feeds efficiently, incubate and brood naturally making them more sustainable for small-scale scavenging systems in SSA (Riise et al. 2004; Rodríguez et al. 2011). The 2015 biodiversity status report by FAO revealed that over 3.5% of chicken breeds were extinct, 33% were at high risk, and about 67% were in the unknown status category (Scherf and Pilling 2015). In SSA, 80% of SSF keep IC, significantly contributing to the IC sector, making them the primary custodians of IC-AnGR in the region. If there are no measures to stop or reduce the loss of IC-AnGR, the rural communities in low-income countries are likely to suffer.

Poultry diseases

The decision by SSF in many parts of SSA to reconsider the rearing of IC is a viable socioeconomic strategy. However, the growth of the IC sector is hindered significantly by poultry diseases (Guèye 1998, 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). Most researchers argue that the low-input and scavenging production systems are less successful than the intensive system for broilers or layers due to uncontrolled poultry diseases (Rischkowsky and Pilling 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). Most producers of IC in rural areas depend on natural remedies for controlling poultry diseases (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Guèye (2000) suggested that over 79% of rural farmers use traditional herbs and plants to treat poultry diseases and that 50% of mortalities happen in the IC sector within the first four weeks of chicken raising. In other parts of SSA, Queenan et al. (2016) reported that suspected Newcastle disease (NCD) and fowlpox cause 40% to 100% of mortalities in IC towards the end of the dry season in the region. In Zambia, NCD, fowl pox, typhoid, infectious coryza, Gumboro, worm infestation, and external parasites have significantly contributed to the poor performance and high mortalities experienced in the IC sector (Phiri et al. 2007; Simainga et al. 2011; Mubamba et al. 2018).

In 2012, over 27% of SSF in Zambia relied on traditional medication, and less than 15% used veterinary drugs, resulting in 60% of the IC dying (Lubungu and Mofya 2012). The FAO rates poultry diseases and poor disease management at 28%, introducing exotic animal breeds at 22%, uncontrolled cross-breeding at 63% and climate change at 16% as responsible for the loss of chicken breeds globally (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Despite the high disease prevalence observed in IC, there are some beneficial adaptability and genetic gains through natural selection.

Indigenous chickens have evolved in their current and uncontrolled environments evident through developing disease resistance and high adaptation to low-quality diets (Mapiye et al. 2008; Gizaw et al. 2010; Queenan et al. 2016). Among the 75 avian breeds that show unspecified resistance to NCD, a devastating infectious disease endemic to certain areas, 56 were chicken breeds (Scherf and Pilling 2015). In Nigeria, Naked neck and Yoruba chickens exhibited resistance to viral infection and eliminated the disease if it occurred (Adeyemo et al. 2012; Bobbo et al. 2013). Further, novel genes and the pathways signalling the resistance of avian influenza in poultry were analysed by (Wang et al. 2014). These traits, which are superior in IC to commercial breeds, may be essential in future chicken breeding programs (Mapiye et al. 2008). Gizaw et al. (2010) suggest that adaptive traits are equal to or more important than production traits in indigenous livestock production systems.

High cost of inputs and nutritional limitations

Nutritional problems are mainly due to high feed costs and poor chicken feeding regimes among SSF. The cost of feeds and other live inputs in the Zambian poultry industry generally increased in the past five years. The high costs of poultry feed in SSA are attributed to ever-rising prices for soya beans and maize (Bagopi et al., 2014; Vernooij et al., 2018). The Poultry Association of Zambia (PAZ), an affiliate of the Zambia farmers Union, has been publishing weekly reports covering prices for poultry inputs. The association reported price changes for feed, feed ingredients and live inputs for the first quarters between 2016 and 2021; the solvent-extracted soybean meal increased by 27.7% from US$23.50 per 50 kg, and 45.3% increase for broiler starter from US$20.10 per 50 kg. Further, prices for broiler grower increased by 44% from US$19.30 per 50 kg, and finisher increased by 45.9% from US$18.50 per 50 kg, whereas a 49% increase in layer mash from U$14.70 per 50 kg (PAZ 2021). Other price increments included day-old chicks for improved free-range chickens, layers and broilers at 87.5%, 83.3% and 125% from US$0.80, US$0.60 and US$0.40 per bird, respectively. Market prices for pullets, broilers, spent layers, and IC increased by 64.8%, 57%, 38.5% and 61.5% from US$8.90, US$3.00, US$2.60 and US$3.90 per bird, respectively (PAZ 2021). The high prices for feed and other live inputs have hindered SSF from participating entirely in the commercial poultry sector in SSA (Vernooij et al. 2018). The proportinal increment in feeds costs with increased flock sizes observed in exotic or commercial chickens is the major factor contributing to reduced profits compared to IC sector (Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Limited supplementary feeding and a lower plane of nutrition under the scavenging system lead to mortalities and reduced consistency in chicken (eggs) size and quality (Queenan et al. 2016). The majority of the IC are left to roam and scavenge for feed sources, such as insects, termites, vegetables, seeds, grains and earthworms, and in some instances, farmers supplement the chickens with kitchen waste, maize bran, leafy vegetables and other cheap feed sources (Mwalusanya et al. 2002; Goromela et al. 2006; Mapiye et al. 2008).

There are also fluctuations in the availability of scavenged feed resources between one harvest and the following year’ in rain-fed farming systems in SSA (de Bruyn et al. 2018). In Zambia, the scavenging chickens have access to high-protein insects and earthworms in the rainy season (December to April) and high-energy feed sources during the harvest time from May to August. However, in the hot and dry season, a severe shortage of nutritious feeds leads to poor health, malnutrition and high mortalities (Queenan et al. 2016). The dry season requires deliberate feed supplementation to mitigate adverse effects on IC (de Bruyn et al. 2018). In some parts of SSA, breeding black soldiers fly larvae and maggots as protein sources are being experimented with and may improve nutrition in the IC sector, especially in periods of scarcity (Kenis et al. 2014).

Inadequate policies and regulations to support the indigenous chicken sector

The existing policies governing the poultry sector are generally inadequate in SSA. Most policies and trade restrictions are in favour of commercial poultry producers. In Namibia, poultry producers legally brine broiler meat at 20%; in Botswana, commercial producers are allowed to supply 75% of poultry meat demand, whereas brined poultry meat is not allowed (Bagopi et al. 2014).

Infrastructure development is more leaned toward larger farms (Dolberg 2007). Most governments in SSA allocate more funds to infrastructure development, favouring larger livestock species predominantly run by commercial entities. Furthermore, minimal attention goes to the IC sector, despite SSF being part of the primary data source when designing policies on funding and infrastructure (Dolberg 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). In Zambia, the livestock infrastructure support project funded by African Development Bank focused on the construction of dairy and beef infrastructure. The Second National Agriculture Policy of 2016 to 2020 did not provide a good roadmap on value addition and market participation for SSF involved in the IC sector (MFL 2017). The inadequate policies exacerbate the problems experienced in the IC sector, and rural farmers feel neglected by political leaders and inadequately represented by scientists (Bagopi et al. 2014; Dolberg 2007).

Low-income countries have witnessed economic growth, particularly in the private sector. The observed changes are motivated by inadequate regulations and policies that negatively affect ecosystems, AnGR and the markets (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Poultry products worth millions of dollars are imported overseas to SSA, negatively impacting local poultry sectors. In 2018, South Africa imported frozen poultry products of mixed parts valued at over US$65 million from different sources in Brazil (PAZ 2021). These posed a public health threat because they lacked traceability and affected the local poultry sector. In Ghana, over US$60 million of poultry products were imported into the country, flooding the local market in 2018 (PAZ 2021). These importations prompted the Ghanaian poultry association to engage the government in introducing quotas on poultry imports to protect local poultry farmers. In Namibia, the government sanctioned the importation of poultry products to mitigate the adverse impact on the local poultry industry. In Zambia, the Poultry Association of Zambia continued to engage the government to promote policies protecting and enhancing farmers in the commercial and IC sectors (PAZ 2021). Some policy researchers recommend factoring in some livestock production policies and legislation on consumption to existing environmental management policies that could enrich strategies, enhance community benefits and reduce food wastage (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010).

Low access to formal and stable markets

In SSA, farmers in the IC sector face barriers preventing them from accessing organised markets. These obstacles are associated with market standards and requirements, such as selling frozen whole or portions of chickens, packaging, labelling, and selling from standard outlets (Bagopi et al. 2014). Producers in the IC sector cannot compete with larger commercial entities because they neither own the required facilities, brands or organised sales outlets (Simainga et al. 2011; Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). With many obstacles to the established markets, SSF can only sell their chickens or eggs directly to these markets through groups and intermediaries who manage most market channels (Bagopi et al. 2014; Queenan et al. 2016). This way is also full of obstacles.

In Zambia, SSF sell chickens through informal places, such as the roadside, village markets, the backyards, and direct to consumers (Queenan et al. 2016; Mubamba et al. 2018; PAZ 2021). In many parts of the country, informal markets have recently transformed into essential selling points, making it possible for farmers to organise and meet consumers’ demands on quality and quantity. For example, “Tuesday and Saturday markets” have become popular in some parts of the country (PAZ 2021). In the Northern part of Zambia, this traditional market is also called Munada, where traders agree on the date and place for the market day.

Low access to reliable markets generally affects IC sales, prices and consumption dynamics among rural communities. For example, in Tanzania, the SSF sold twice more village chickens and eggs to rural areas than they consumed and sold at US$3.72 per live chicken. In contrast, producers of IC in Zambia consumed more than half of their chickens and only sold 20% to urban areas at an average price of US$3.37 per bird (Queenan et al. 2016). The variation in selling points and consumption levels shows how undefined and informal the markets for IC are in SSA.

Poor housing facilities

Another constraint is the lack of reliable poultry housing facilities for IC under scavenging systems. Some farmers keep their chickens in undeveloped poultry structures at night to secure them from predators. In many cases, chickens seek shelter in trees, making them vulnerable to predators, such as cats and dogs (Guèye 2000; Simainga et al. 2011). Because of the poor status of chicken housing, theft, predation, and environmental hazards are common, significantly contributing to losses IC observed in the sector. For example, a survey in Western Zambia showed that 93% and 84% of the households interviewed attributed chicken losses to predation and thefts, respectively (Simainga et al. 2011).

Growth opportunities for indigenous chicken sector in Sub-Saharan Africa

The current IC sector stands a chance for growth due to current opportunities. Strategies through research innovations should respond to the rural farmers’ current and future livelihood demands. This section highlights the available opportunities and workable strategies, for use and conservation of IC-AnGR in SSA.

Increased consumer demand for indigenous chickens

Despite the barriers and challenges experienced by SSF, IC are essential to rural communities and consumers. Consumers’ demand and preference for IC have steadily grown in the past decades (Bett et al. 2013). The increased preference for IC results from consumers’ perceived good taste, fine texture, and health benefits, with some preferring male chickens for the large size and hens for their tenderness (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016). Although in South Africa, studies by Dyubele et al. (2010) found that consumers prefered broilers to IC due to tenderness and other attributes. Generally, the increased demand has led to a substantial rise in prices of IC over commercial chicken meat, potentially creating an opportunity for SSF (Guèye 2000; Ajayi 2010; Queenan et al. 2016; PAZ 2021). In Benin, consumers showed a higher preference for IC and are willing to pay US$2.67 per bird compared to US1.30 for each exotic chicken (Rodríguez et al. 2011). Similar trends were reported in Zambia, where the IC sold nearly twice the broilers’ prices (PAZ 2021). The Poultry Association of Zambia highlighted that in 2016, live IC sold at US$4.0, which was 33% higher than broilers, while in the first quarter of 2021, IC fetched US$6.40 per bird, which was 73% more than broilers. This trend is consistent with some studies, where IC prices were high, mainly when sold in formal markets and familiar places to consumers as proof of genuine IC (Guèye 2000; Queenan et al. 2016).

Population growth and food demand

Consumer demand for healthy products, including IC meat and eggs, will increase with human population growth in SSA. Projections from FAO show that from 2005 to 2050, the global human population will grow to 9.8 billion, of which over 46% of growth will be in SSA, and a 60% increase in food demand is expected (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Scherf and Pilling 2015). The annual population growth of 1.9% in SSA with per capita food consumption of less than 2500 (Kcal/person/day) and annual undernutrition levels 20% higher than other regions predicted between 2005 and 2050 will demand increased food supply in the region (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Scherf and Pilling 2015). This population increase may create an opportunity for SSF involved in the production of IC.

Food consumption patterns

Apart from increased food demand, the population dynamics are likely to affect the consumption patterns of animal-based protein, which accounts for 40% of the total protein consumed by humans (Lebbie and Ramsay 1999; Boland et al. 2013; Mueller et al. 2015). Some scholars also predict that the emergence of the middle class will highly influence meat consumption in low-income countries, which will require applying technology and innovation to meet the demand for meat during what is termed the livestock revolution (Steinfeld and Gerber 2010). Globally, from 2000 to 2050, researchers predict an 82% increase in meat consumption, equivalent to 233-271 million MT, of which 88 million MT is poultry and over 183 million MT from bovine, ovine and pig meat combined (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Boland et al. 2013; Scherf and Pilling 2015). In other regions, meat consumption will increase slowly. However, the volumes demanded will be substantial, especially in SSA, where the farming population will get older, and a majority will migrate to urban areas as the middle class expands (Klingholz 2020). Selected approaches to sustainability and promoting conservation of IC AnGR among rural communities are outlined in the sections below.

International guidelines on conservation of animal genetic resources

The Food and Agriculture Organisation promotes five strategic areas for using and conserving indigenous AnGR (Scherf and Pilling 2015). These are: (i) enhancing knowledge on the characterisation of local animals, (ii) developing sufficient institutional frameworks for AnGR management, enhancing linkages among livestock farmers and stakeholders concerning policies and programmes, and (iii) Enhance awareness through education, training and research in significant areas of AnGR management, (iv) Enhancing breeding strategies and programs to harness available AnGR and match them with environments of production and requirements of societies and (v) increase diversification of conservation programs and possibly mix some approaches that use existing livestock breeds in the typical production environment and consider gene banks’ use to store genetic materials. To implement the five areas, FAO required individual countries to undertake various programs toward the stated strategies by forming AnGR conservation committees and submitting biodiversity status reports to the FAO Commission on biodiversity (Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Farmer mobilization and sustainable interventions

Despite researchers sharing a consensus on the socioeconomic roles of IC in SSA, there are fewer attempts to holistically find solutions to challenges faced in the IC sector, including the continued loss of IC-AnGR and low socioeconomic gains by SSF (Dolberg 2007; Scherf and Pilling 2015). The Poultry Association of Zambia expressed similar concerns regarding obscure solutions for SSF in Zambia’s poultry sector. Generally, the problems faced by the IC sector in SSA are also associated with unsustainable use of IC-AnGR, lack of animal management and disease control skills, and absence of value addition, among others (Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; PAZ 2021). Initiating interventions that foster the sustainable development of the IC sector is essential for securing IC breeds and enhancing rural livelihoods in SSA (Rodríguez et al. 2011). The involvement of rural communities in community-based interventions empowered SSF through decision-making and livestock business ownership (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015). Most importantly, researchers found that community-based interventions were the sustainable option for conserving local AnGR through judicious utilization, continuous improvements, and a more reliable long-term approach suitable for rural communities, particularly in low-income countries (Mueller et al. 2015).

Contextualizing rural communities

Developing an innovation based on the local context is essential in promoting the conservation of IC-AnGR, enhancing socioeconomic gains, and increasing adoptions among SSF in the IC sector. There are guidelines and principles for designing community-based interventions, as highlighted by (Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; Scherf and Pilling 2015). A collective approach based on shared interests among researchers, communities and stakeholders would create sustainable and workable strategies to conserve IC-AnGR in SSA. Governments in SSA need to design sustainable agriculture programs, increase investment in research and promote sound policies that encourage the participation of youths in agribusiness and food production (Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012; Klingholz 2020). In a few decades, SSF working in isolation in SSA may face more constraints than those working collectively (Livingston et al. 2011). Farmer belonging to organised groups would improve production and productivity, achievable through good management, sustainable use and conservation of IC-AnGR, and improved disease control, nutrition and value addition (Livingston et al. 2011; Mueller et al. 2015; Queenan et al. 2016).

Creating market linkages

Mobilising SSF into organised groups would make it easy link farmers to formal markets for their chickens, eggs and other products (Bagopi et al. 2014; Livingston et al. 2011; PAZ 2021). Further, farmers would have opportunities to negotiate for better policies affecting the IC sector and access an equitable market share (PAZ 2021). Exploiting the existing local market niches, which are driven by consumer preference for IC meat and eggs, may increase IC flock sizes, enhance rural livelihoods and create an opportunity for sustainable use and in situ conservation of IC in SSA (Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Community-based interventions and outcomes in selected low-income countries

There are practical examples of Stakeholders’ engagements and their impact on SSF in low-income countries. Farmers involved with other indigenous animal species are covered in this section to illustrate how practical and universal this approach is in designing solutions, improving livelihood and increasing productivity among SSF.

Mueller et al. (2015) outlined the process required when establishing community-based interventions and gave examples of such approaches in developing countries that worked and those that faced challenges. The community-based intervention plans had standard features, including initiators being either the community or government research institutions, well-formulated breeding objectives based on indigenous or local breeds, the existence of institutional support and each of the plans recorded a change (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011).

Various researchers empirically reported the impacts of community-based interventions in low-income countries. For example, in Vietnam, pork farmers achieved between 40% and 100% increment in pork prices resulting from SSF working with government institutions to identify market and pricing challenges and design solutions (Mueller, 2015). In Kenya, SSF experienced fast growth in the goat population and over 300% increase in goat milk yields from 0.25 litres per day after community-based solutions. In Ethiopia, positive testimonies and knowledge-sharing among SSF led to the widespread adoption of sheep breeding strategies among rural communities (Mueller et al. 2015). There are also instances of community-based interventions targeting the IC sector.

In Benin, the researchers mobilised farmers to undertake a vaccination program against NCD and facilitate improved poultry management of IC and exotic chickens. Before the community-based intervention, exotic chickens sold 20% more than IC, whereas IC showed profitability of 58% more (Rodríguez et al. 2011). After vaccination, mortality in both flocks was reduced by 5%, and exotic chickens sold 53% more than IC. However, the rapid increase in flock sizes of exotic chickens resulted in increased feed costs by 300% and a reduction in overall profits by 38%. In contrast, feed costs for IC flocks under free-range remained negligible regardless of the change in flock size.

In Zambia’s Luangwa Valley, researchers implemented two community-based programs targeting communities producing IC in Mambwe and Lundazi districts of the Eastern province (Dumas et al. 2017). Firstly, NCD vaccination programs and workshops provided guidelines on improved flock management. In the second intervention, researchers facilitated and supported the construction of semi-intensive egg production structures in 24 communities, and each group had up to five farmers managing 40 hens. After analysing various data from surveys and other secondary records, they found that the flock sizes increased by over 135% within four years, from 10.9 birds and that annual incomes from poultry rose by 138% from US$16.89 (Dumas et al. 2017). However, the consumption of chickens and eggs did not change much as farmers mainly sold the birds. Impacts of the second intervention included over 62% increase in egg productivity, average group income was over US$30 monthly, consumption of eggs increased by 118% among producers, 167% from 0.9 eggs per week in women and 263% from 0.8 eggs per week among children (Dumas et al. 2017). The two interventions not only improved communities’ livelihoods but also promoted sustainable alternatives to the consumption of bush meat, which was detrimental to the ecology of the protected area.

Useful lessons from other low-income countries

Generally, there are issues related to community-based interventions, including instances where particular challenges hindered the progress of these interventions. Mueller et al. (2015) highlighted a lack of trust in financial matters and technical problems that potentially affected the sustainability and continuation of particular interventions. For example, in Bolivia, where the objective of the intervention was to improve the fibre quality of wool from llamas, problems such as politics, financial mistrust, and funding challenges resulted in low sustainability and the eventual collapse of the innovation (Mueller et al. 2015).

Promoting poultry development plans based on exotic breeds instead of IC would be less valuable to resource-poor SSF. The new breeds may not adapt to the uncontrolled environment in rural communities (Scherf and Pilling 2015). Some challenges associated with exotic breeds include low literacy, lack of records, diseases, high prices and production costs for SSF (Mueller et al. 2015; Mtileni et al. 2016; Sebho 2016; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Therefore, considering the local context, IC breeds, and promoting ownership of the intervention formulated through engagements of stakeholders is crucial to the sustainable conservation of IC-AnGR in SSA. The erosion of IC-AnGR is one urgent challenge which requires immediate interventions to secure the highly adapted chicken breeds and ensure better livelihoods for rural communities in SSA.

The voices and views of the target rural communities and understanding the local situation are essential in intervention programs (Patton 2010; Bryman 2016). Analysis of various community-based interventions in low-income countries showed that research institutions and government support were crucial in achieving the established objectives (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Institutional support motivates farmers to open up to their challenges, work hard and feel a sense of ownership of the program.

Zambia has strived to adhere to the guidelines of FAO. The country implements planned programs through research and extension services of the Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock. Agendas such as farmer engagements and capacity building with donor support on climate-resilient projects, establishing livestock breeding centres across the country, promoting farmer-driven innovation such as community-based programs on IC, multiplication of IC breeds at Mazabuka research station in the Southern province of Zambia (MFL 2019). Through the African Union InterAfrican Bureau for African Animal Resources, Zambia formulated and launched the National Strategic Action Plan in 2018-2019 to develop sustainable use and conservation of indigenous livestock breeds, including IC-AnGR in Zambia (MFL 2019).

Developing a sustainable IC sector based on understanding the production systems used by SSF, clearly defined roles of stakeholders, and the analysing the value of IC has the potential to strengthen its sustainable conservation and enhance rural livelihoods in SSA. The successes of researcher-community-stakeholder engagements in identifying problems and designing solutions highlight the determination of the researcher to reduce poverty in rural communities (Dumas et al. 2017; Mueller et al. 2015; Rodríguez et al. 2011). Adapting fundamental and practical principles from guidelines from rural poultry farming, FAO, and community-based interventions justifies why projects targeting rural communities are well-placed for the IC sector in SSA.

Selective adoption of workable approaches based on lessons learnt from other community-based interventions in low-income countries would increase the use and conservation of native chicken breeds and improve livelihoods for rural communities (Guèye 2000; Mueller et al. 2015; Scherf and Pilling 2015).

Conclusion

Indigenous chickens are an integral component of agriculture among resource-poor communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. These chickens have the potential to contribute to food and nutritional security, increased household incomes and access to livelihood assets for small-scale farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Addressing concerns about the loss of indigenous chicken genetic resources and the low socioeconomic gains among rural communities requires strategies inclusive of the targeted communities. Researchers must consider the context of farming and production systems in which the communities thrive. Researchers and stakeholders would have a consensus on indigenous chickens’ current and future roles, existing opportunities, common challenges and what interventions would work sustainably. Some notable areas that need urgent attention in the indigenous chicken sector include developing farmer skills in poultry management, productivity, value addition, disease control, and linkages to formal markets. A sustainable indigenous chicken sector will enhance rural livelihood and increase the sustainable conservation and utilization of indigenous chicken breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Recommendations

Future studies should investigate market needs and consumption patterns for indigenous chickens among consumers in selected parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, starting with case studies in Zambia. Further, an assessment of the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the indigenous chicken sector is essential in understanding the resilience and sustainability of rural communities in the region.

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No data are associated with this article.

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Kanyama CM, Moss AF and Crowley TM. Strategies for promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from low-income countries [version 3; peer review: 1 not approved]. F1000Research 2022, 11:251 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.75478.3)
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Titus Jairus Zindove, Department of Animal Science, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Fiji National University, Nasinu, Fiji 
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I have read the revised paper and acknowledge that the authors have addressed some of my previous suggestions. The paper, however, still needs improvement before it can be indexed in an international scientific journal. First, the manuscript needs thorough editing ... Continue reading
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Zindove TJ. Reviewer Report For: Strategies for promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from low-income countries [version 3; peer review: 1 not approved]. F1000Research 2022, 11:251 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.133393.r137718)
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  • Author Response 08 Jul 2022
    Christopher Kanyama, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, 2351, Australia
    08 Jul 2022
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    The reviewers' report made important observations and offered helpful guidance. The following are our responses to concerns raised by the reviewer.
    1. The paragraphs that had repetitions were either
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  • Author Response 08 Jul 2022
    Christopher Kanyama, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, 2351, Australia
    08 Jul 2022
    Author Response
    The reviewers' report made important observations and offered helpful guidance. The following are our responses to concerns raised by the reviewer.
    1. The paragraphs that had repetitions were either
    ... Continue reading
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Reviewer Report 08 Apr 2022
Titus Jairus Zindove, Department of Animal Science, School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Fiji National University, Nasinu, Fiji 
Not Approved
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The manuscript entitled “Strategies of enhancing rural livelihoods and promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Zambia” discusses the importance of and ways to improve indigenous chicken production in Zambia. I think the effort is useful and ... Continue reading
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Zindove TJ. Reviewer Report For: Strategies for promoting sustainable use and conservation of indigenous chicken breeds in Sub-Saharan Africa: Lessons from low-income countries [version 3; peer review: 1 not approved]. F1000Research 2022, 11:251 (https://doi.org/10.5256/f1000research.79356.r129217)
NOTE: it is important to ensure the information in square brackets after the title is included in all citations of this article.
  • Author Response 11 Apr 2022
    Christopher Kanyama, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, 2351, Australia
    11 Apr 2022
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    RESPONSE TO REVIEWERS REPORT

    This is the response to the reviewers report and guidance provided by Zindove T.J (2022) with reference to our review article entitled: Strategies of enhancing ... Continue reading
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  • Author Response 11 Apr 2022
    Christopher Kanyama, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, 2351, Australia
    11 Apr 2022
    Author Response
    RESPONSE TO REVIEWERS REPORT

    This is the response to the reviewers report and guidance provided by Zindove T.J (2022) with reference to our review article entitled: Strategies of enhancing ... Continue reading

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